Topic 1: River Environments
Revision Notes
Name:
Class:
1
1.1: Hydrological Cycle:
• A global circulation of water.
• A giant closed system.
• A fixed amount of water because water neither enters nor leaves the earth and its
atmosphere.
• During the hydrological cycle, water is held in a number of stores and then moves between
them through a number of transfers (also called flows).
Stores:
1.Atmosphere:
• Where water exists either as water vapour or as small droplets in clouds.
2. Land:
• Water is stored on the surface in rivers, lakes and reservoirs. • Water is
taken in by plants and stored in vegetation.
• Water is stored below ground in the bedrock = groundwater store. • Water
can be stored as ice sheets & glaciers.
3.Sea:
• Over 95% of the Earth’s water is stored in the sea.
Transfers:
• The transfers of water that take place between stores;
1.Evaporation:
• the hydrological cycle starts with evaporation due to the heat of the sun
• Water is converted from a liquid into a gas, called water vapour. This takes place
from the sea, ponds and lakes.
2. Transpiration:
• Plants take up liquid water from the soil and ‘breathe’ it into the atmosphere as
water vapour.
2
3. Evapotranspiration:
• The loss of moisture from the ground by direct evaporation from water bodies and
the soil, plus transpiration from plants.
4. Condensation:
• The change in atmosphere when water vapour cools and becomes liquid.
• The liquid takes the form of water droplets that appear as clouds.
5. Precipitation:
• The transfer of water in any form (rain, hail or snow) from the atmosphere to the
land or sea.
6. Overland flow:
• Most precipitation that reaches the ground moves due to gravity and enters a river
or a lake. This is known as run off.
7. Infiltration:
• The transfer of water downwards through the soil/rock and into the groundwater
store.
8. Through-flow:
• Takes place between the ground surface and the top of the groundwater store.
• Water moves slowly through the soil until it reaches a stream or river.
9. Groundwater flow:
• Happens in the rocks of the aquifier and is the underground transfer of waters to
rivers, lakes and the sea.
3
1.2 Drainage basins
• A drainage basin is the area of land area of land where water from rain or snow melt drains
downhill into a body of water such as a river, lake, wetland or ocean.
• When a droplet of water falls onto the land (as precipitation), gravity will make sure that the water
is ‘pulled’ downhill to return to the sea.
• A drainage basin is any area of land where precipitation collects and drains off into a
common outlet, such as into a river, bay, or other body of water.
• The drainage basin includes all the surface water from rain runoff, snowmelt, hail, sleet and nearby
streams that run downslope towards the shared outlet, as well as the groundwater underneath the
earth's surface.
4
1.3 River regimes and hydrographs
• River discharges vary throughout the year, from month to month, from day to
day. These changes make up the term ‘river regime.’
• Peak discharge - maximum amount of water held in the channel.
• Peak rainfall – maximum amount of rainfall (millimeters).
• Lag time - the time taken between peak rainfall and peak discharge.
• Rising limb - shows the increase in discharge on a hydrograph. • Falling limb -
shows the return of discharge to normal/base flow on a hydrograph.
• Base flow - the normal discharge of the river.
Discharge
•The amount of water carried by a river at any one time is known as its discharge- this is
measured in cumecs.
•The amount of discharge changes almost every day, which is known as river regime.
•The regime closely reflects the local climate, particularly rainfall.
Why do we need to know about the regime of a river?
1. We need to know how quickly any rain falling in a drainage basin will reach the drainage
network.
2. It is also important to know how much a rivers channel can hold. If rainwater reaches the river
quickly, the channel may not cope and flooding will occur.
Storm hydrographs
5
•A graph that records the changing discharge of a river after a rainstorm.
Why are storm hydrographs useful?
•To know how rivers will handle heavy rainfall.
•The data allows people to work out the risk of flooding.
•A storm hydrograph shows discharge of the river as being made up of 2 flows:
1. Base flow: the ‘normal’ discharge of the river
2. Storm flow: the extra discharge of the river as a result of the rainstorm
Factors affecting river regimes & storm hydrographs
1.The amount & intensity of rain: heavy rain will not sink into the ground. It will become
overland flow/run off and quickly reach the river.
2.Temperature: temp. affects the form of precipitation. E.g. if temperatures are below freezing,
precipitation will be in the form of snow. If the ground remains frozen, melting snow on the
surface can reach the river quickly.
3.Steep slopes: causes quick surface run off, so water will reach the river more quickly. Flat
and gentle sloping land may lead to water sinking into the soil = delay it reaching the
river.
4.Rock type: impermeable rocks will not allow rainwater to sink into it, so it will speed up run-
off. Permeable rocks allow infiltration of water into bedrock, this slows the delivery of the
water to the river.
5.Vegetation and land use: trees and plants delay rain reaching the ground. Bare soil and rock
speed up run off and reduce the time lag.
6.Human intervention: dams and reservoirs hold back discharge and reduce the risk of flooding.
6
7
1.4 Fluvial Processes
• •Simply put, fluvial processes are how rivers change the land. They move water, wear away
soil and rock, carry sand and dirt, and drop materials in new places. This helps create things
like valleys and riverbanks.
• 3 processes; erosion, transport and deposition
• •These river processes partner 2 other processes; weathering and mass movement.
Weathering
• Weathering is the process that breaks down rocks into smaller pieces over time. It can
happen in different ways, like through wind, water, temperature changes, or living things.
Weathering helps shape the Earth's surface and creates soil.
1. Physical weathering- Freeze-thaw weathering - this happens when water enters cracks in the
rock. At night when the temperature drops, the water can freeze, which makes the water expand,
putting pressure on the rock, making the crack bigger. When the ice thaws, the pressure on the
rock is relieved. The repetition of freezing and thawing will cause the rock to break away.
8
2. Chemical weathering- when rocks break down because of chemicals. One example is acid
rain, which happens when pollution makes rainwater more acidic. This acid can slowly
dissolve rocks, changing them over time.
3. Biological weathering- Biological weathering is when living things, like plants and animals,
help break down rocks. For example, plant roots can grow into cracks in rocks, making them
bigger and eventually breaking the rocks apart. Animals, like burrowing creatures, can also
help by digging and moving soil, which further breaks down the rocks.
9
Mass movement
• Once rocks are really broken down, the weathered materials start to move down the slope
under the influence of gravity.
• This is mass movement.
• In river valleys, there are two main types of mass movement as follows;
Slumping:
•Slumping- occurs when the bottom of a valley side slope is cut away by the river flowing at
its base. Makes the slope unstable and weathered materials slumps down the river.
•Slumping is also helped when the weathered material on the slope is saturated by heavy
rain. The water makes the weather material heavier and acts as a lubricant.
Soil creep
• Soil creep is a slow movement of weathered materials, like soil, down a slope. It
happens very gradually, often because of changes in temperature or when water gets
into the ground. The weathered materials collects at the bottom of the valley.
•
10
Erosion
• Erosion is the process that wears away the river bed (bottom) and banks (sides).
• Erosion also breaks up the rocks that are carried by the river.
• There are 4 types of erosion.
1.Hydraulic action
Water hits the river bed and banks with such force that material is dislodged and carried away. This
is most likely to happen when the river’s discharge is high.
2.Abrasion
The material being carried by a river is rubbed against the sides and floor of the channel. This
widens and deepens the channel.
3.Corrosion
Minerals in the rocks forming the sides of the river channel are dissolved by the water flowing
past.
4.Attrition
Involves particles of material being carried by a river, and becoming rounder and smaller as they
collide with each other.
11
Transport
• The movement of material (load) by the river.
• The load is the material that has been washed or fallen into the river.
• Also contains materials eroded by the river from the sides of the river channel
• The load can be transported in a number of different ways.
Suspension: Lighter material carried along by river flow.
Traction: Large boulders rolled on the bed.
Solution: Material dissolved in the water.
Saltation: Small boulders bounced along the bed.
Deposition
• Deposition = when the river drops any material it has been carrying.
• Occurs when there is a decrease in the energy, speed and discharge of the river.
• Most likely to happen when a river enters a lake or sea or a decrease in the
gradient of the river’s channel.
12
1.5 Downstream changes in river characteristics
What is a long profile?
• A long profile is a line representing the river from its source (where it starts) to its mouth
(where it meets the sea).
• A river changes with increasing distance downstream from its source towards its mouth.
Upper course:
• This is where the river starts and is usually an upland area.
• Slopes are steep - this can increase the velocity of the river after heavy rainfall,
when discharge is high.
• The river channel is narrow and shallow here.
• The river's load is large in the upper course, as it hasn't been broken down by erosion
yet.
• When discharge is high, vertical erosion erodes the river bed and larger
sediments are transported by traction.
13
Mid-Course:
• Here the gradient becomes less steep.
• The river channel gets deeper and wider as the bed and banks are eroded.
• The sediment load of the river gets smaller in size.
• Small meanders and a small floodplain can be found in this part of the river.
• Meanders- a bend in a river
• Floodplain- An area of low-lying land next to a river which is prone to flooding.
Low-Course:
• The final course of the river is where the land is a lot flatter.
• The river's load is fine sediment, as erosion has broken down the rocks. • The river
channel is at its widest and deepest as it flows towards its mouth. • Deposition is the
main process in this part of the river, which creates large
floodplains and deltas.
• Delta- A river landform made of deposited sediment at the mouth of as river.
14
1.6 Downstream changes in river landscapes
•The downstream changes in channel characteristics are associated with changes
in river landforms and landscapes.
•The long profile and its landforms can be divided into three sections: upland, midland and
lowland.
15
Upland landforms:
• V-shaped valleys
• Interlocking spurs
• Waterfalls and gorges
16
Mid- Lowland Landforms
• Meanders
• Oxbow lakes
• Floodplain
• Delta
• Levees
17
Mid- Lowland Landforms
18
19
Case study: River Tay Valley, UK [page 15]
- Structure and landforms in this river.
20
1.7: Water uses, demand and supply
Supply & Demand
• All forms of water use revolve around 2 key elements;
1.Demand: the need for water for a range of uses/ or referred to as consumption,
the amount of water consumed reflects the level of demand.
2.Supply: meeting the demand for water by accessing various sources, such as
groundwater, lakes and rivers.
Water balance= comparing water demand and water supply.
Water demand:
•Water demand greatly increased during last 100 years.
•Main reasons > growth of world population and global development
•Development has resulted in a rising standard of living which means people now
use more water in their homes (showering, cooking, cleaning, washing machines)
and recreational purposes such as swimming.
•Rise in agricultural productivity needed to feed a growing populations results in
more water being used for irrigation
•A key part of development is industrialization. Factories use large quantities of
water. Electricity is used to power industry.
Water supply:
The water needed to meet increasing demand comes from three main sources:
1.Rivers and lakes
2.Reservoirs- artificial lakes created by building a dam across a valley and allowing
it to flood. The water collected and stored behind the dam can become an
important water supply.
3.Aquifers and wells- much of the world’s fresh water lies underground. Stored in
porous rocks called aquifers. This water can be extracted by drilling wells down to
the aquifer.
21
Water surplus and deficit:
• There is a stark difference between water demand/consumption and water
supply.
• 3 types of areas in the world:
1.Areas where the water balance is negative- water demand exceeds supply =
water deficit areas
2.Areas where the water balance is positive- supply of water exceeds demand =
water surplus areas
3.Areas where water demand and supply are roughly the same- water balance is
equal = water-neutral area.
1.8: Water quality & Supply
• Polluted water threatens human health and causes diseases such as cholera,
bilharzia, typhoid and diarrhea.
• Water quality varies from place to place- e.g. water quality is generally poorer in dry
climates. During dry periods, water that remains on the surface becomes stagnant
and can be a breeding ground for diseases.
• Pollution is another factor that affects water quality. Levels of pollution are
particularly high in urban areas, especially developing cities.
22
Sources of water pollution:
1. Agriculture:
• Liquid from farm silage and slurry from farm animals enter rivers.
• Fertilizers and pesticides seep into the groundwater.
• Deforestation- run off carries soil and silt into rivers. Serious impacts for aquatic
life and humans.
2. Industry
• Spillages from industrial plants such as oil refineries can enter rivers.
• Producing metallic minerals and the heavy use of water in processing ore- toxic
substances from this eventually enter the river.
3. Domestic
• The discharge of untreated sewage from houses
• Use of river for washing clothes & bathing contaminates water
• Emptying highly chlorinated water from swimming pools contaminates water
23
What is safe water?
• Safe water is water that is fit for human consumption.
• It is not contaminated by pollutants and is free from disease.
Managing the supply of clean water
Managing the supply of clean water involves 3 main stages:
1.Collection
2.Treatment
3.Delivery
1.Collection: main sources of water were listed as; rivers, reservoirs, lakes, aquifers and
wells.
2.Treatment:
•Most water requires purification. Rivers are often highly polluted.
•Reservoirs can be polluted by acid rain and the seepage of pollutants from
surrounding hillsides.
•Groundwater can be contaminated by chemicals in rocks.
•Water treatment aims to remove pollutants from the collected water and
produce water that is pure enough for human consumption.
•Substances that are removed during the process of treating drinking water
include silt, soil, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi, minerals, fertilizers.
•A combination of processes is used worldwide in the treatment of water for
human consumption:
1.Chlorination: to control any biological growth e.g. algae
2.Aeration: to remove dissolved iron and manganese
3.Sedimentation: to remove suspended solids
4.Filtration: to remove very fine sediments
5.Disinfection: to kill bacteria
3.Delivery:
•Developed countries- water delivered from treatments works to the point of
consumption (home, factory) by pipes.
•Pipe networks: high cost, high maintenance, large loss of water from leaking pipes
•Developing countries: water often delivered by standpipes (pipes through which
water is pumped vertically). In villages, wells are a common water source.
•Often, well water is untreated. Buckets/containers may be dirty. Water left in open
buckets is vulnerable to dust, insects and animals
24
Case study: River management lessons from Spain, an MEDC. [Page 24]
• Water challenges in Spain?
• Purpose of Tagus-Segura Project?
• Is the Tagus-Segura project successful/efficient? •
Purpose of Ebro Project?
• Is the Ebro project successful/efficient?
Case study: River management lessons from China, an NEE. [Page 26]
• The Three Gorges Project. [purpose? What is it? Effective?]
• Hydroelectric power [advantages? How has it helped china?]
• Disadvantages of the Three Gorges Dam
• The South-North Water Transport Project [location, why is there a high demand of
water here] [main function/idea/purpose of the project] 3
• advantages of the SNWTP
• 3 disadvantages of the SNWTP
• 4 ways that China is reducing demand for water.
Case study: River management lessons from Ethiopia, an LEDC. [Page 27]
• Challenges facing Ethiopia- water and energy.
• Purpose of Grand Renaissance Dam
• Limitations of the Grand Renaissance Dam
• How will this river management project help the development of Ethiopia?
25
1.9: Flooding
•Flooding occurs when the amount of water moving down a river exceeds the
capacity of the river’s channel.
•The excess water overflows the banks and spills out across the flood plain.
•Flooding is a hazard that can cause significant social, economic and
environmental damage.
Causes of flooding:
•Can involve natural and human factors.
•Most flooding caused by very heavy rainfall. The critical factor is how quickly this
rainfall reaches the river from where it falls on surrounding land and mountains. •The
shorter the lag time, the greater the chance of flooding.
26
Factors which reduce lag-time and increase the chance of flooding:
Physical:
•Weather: run off speeded up when prolonged heavy rainfall exceeds the infiltration
capacity and the ground becomes saturated. Sudden rise in temp. above freezing
causes rapid snow melt.
•Rock: Impermeable rocks limit percolation and encourage rapid surface run off. •Soil: A
low infiltration capacity in some soils speeds up run off.
•Relief: Steep slopes cause rapid run off.
•Drainage density: High drainage density means many tributary streams carry
rainwater quickly to the main river.
•Vegetation: Low density vegetation absorbs little water and does not slow down run off.
Trees and plants intercept precipitation (i.e. they catch or drink water). If there is little
vegetation in the drainage basin, then surface run-off will be high.
Human:
•Deforestation: Cutting down trees reduces interception and speeds up run
off.•Urbanisation: Concrete and tarmac surfaces, and drains, means quicker delivery of
rainwater to the main river.
•Agriculture: The risk of flooding is increased by leaving the soil bare, overgrazing
and by ploughing down rather than across slopes.
•Burning fossil fuels: This is raising global temperatures and causing more melting of
ice sheets and glaciers, more rainfall and more frequent storms.
27
Effects on environment:
•Landslides
•Soil erosion
•Loss of wildlife habitats
•Destruction of settlements
•Vegetation destroyed
•Soil contamination by sewage
Effects on people:
•Loss of belongings
•Damage to property
•Disruption to transport
•Disease [typhoid and cholera] and stress
•Insurance claims
•Contamination of water supply
•Crops and animals lost- can cause famine.
•Death and injury.
28
Flood control:
29
30
