RIVER PROSESSES AND LANDFORMS

Drainage Basin

source drainage basin/ catchment area

confluence watershed/water divide

tributary

delta sea

river mouth

Definition of terms

Drainage basin: this is an area that is drained by the main river and its tributaries

Source region: the point where the river starts, usually in mountainous areas

River mouth : the point where a river enters the sea / lake.

Tributary : this is a smaller river or stream supplying water to the main river.

Confluence: the point where two rivers meet or where the tributary joints the main river.

Watershed/water divide: the boundary of the drainage basin/catchment area.

River load- the material transported by a river i.e cobbles, clay, silt, sand etc.

River bed : the floor/bottom of the channel.

River bank : the sides of the channel.

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The hydrological cycle (water cycle)

● This refers to the movement of water between atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere.

● The major input in this cycle is precipitation and the outputs are evapotranspiration and runoff.

● In the cycle, water can be kept in stores such as vegetation, surface, soil moisture, groundwater
and water channels.
● Water is also transferred through processes such as infiltration, throughflow and surface runoff.

Precipitation

● This can be in form of rain or snow.

● Rain occurs when the air is saturated (when relative humidity is 100%).

● The air should also contain particles of soot, dust, ash or ice.

Interception

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 ● This refers to water stored by vegetation. There are three main components:

● Interception loss: water is retained by plant surfaces and later evaporated away or absorbed by
the plant.
● Throughfall : this is water that falls through gaps in the vegetation or drops from leaves.

● Stemflow : water that trickles along twigs, braches and finally down the trunk.

Evapotranspiration

This refers to the combined effects of evaporation and transpiration.

Evaporation

● This is a process by which a liquid or solid is changed into gas.

● Its most important source is from oceans and seas.

● Evaporation increases under warm, dry and windy conditions.

Transpiration

● This is a process by which water vapour is lost from vegetation to the atmosphere.

Infiltration

● This is the downward movement of water through tiny pores in the soil.

● Infiltration capacity is the maximum rate at which rain can enter the soil.

● Infiltration capacity decreases with time through a period of rainfall until a more or less constant
value is reached.
● Sand soils have higher infiltration capacity than clay soils.

● Soils covered by vegetation have higher infiltration capacity than bare soils.

● Gentle slopes have higher infiltration than steep slopes.

Measurement of infiltration rates

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 ● A bottomless measuring cylinder is pushed / knocked into ground.

● A measured amount eg 1 litre of water poured into cylinder.

● Use a stopwatch to find out time taken by water to infiltrate /sinks into ground.

Soil moisture

● This is subsurface water in the soil and subsurface layers above the water table.

● From here water can be absorbed, held,transmitted downwards towards the water table or
transmitted upwards towards the soil surface and the atmosphere.
● Field capacity refers to the amount of water held in the soil after excess water drains away.

Surface runoff/overland flow

● This refers to water moving over the surface.

● Overland flow occurs in two ways: when precipitation exceeds infiltration and when soil is
saturated.

NB: overland flow and infiltration are inversely related.

Throughflow

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 ● This refers to water flowing horizontally in natural pipes in the soil and may eventually form a
spring on a valley side.

Percolation

● This is when water moves slowly from the soil into the bed rock to form groundwater.

Groundwater

● This is subsurface water.

● Water table is the upper layer of the permanently saturated zone (groundwater).

● The water table rises if there is groundwater recharge but it is lowered if there is groundwater
loss.
● Baseflow refers to the part of the river’s discharge that is provided by groundwater seeping into
the bed of the river.
● Recharge refers to the refilling of water into soil pores where water has dried up or has been
extracted by human activities.
● Groundwater recharge occurs as a result of:
1. Infiltration of part of the precipitation at the ground surface.
2. Seepage from surface water bodies such as rivers, lakes and oceans.
3. Artificial recharge from irrigation.
● Losses of groundwater result from:
1. Evapotranspiration especially where the water table is close to the ground surface.
2. Natural discharge by means of spring flow and seepage into surface water bodies.
3. Artificial abstraction through boreholes and wells.

Aquifers

These are rocks which contain significant amounts of water. Aquifers are permeable rocks such as
sandstones and limestones. The water in aquifers moves slowly and acts as a natural regulator in the
hydrological cycle by absorbing rainfall which otherwise would reach streams rapidly. Aquifers maintain
stream flow during long dry periods. Where water flow reaches the surface a spring may be found and
this becomes a source of water for a stream or river.

River processes

River erosion

The main types of erosion include

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a. abrasion /corrasion: this is the wearing away of the bed and bank by the load carried by the river.

b. hydraulic action: this is when fast flowing water is forced into cracks, thereby loosening and
detaching materials from the channel sides.

c. corrosion / chemical erosion / solution: this is when rocks such as limestone are dissolved in acid
rainwater.

d. attrition – materials that are transported by the river collide getting more rounded and reduced in
size

Factors affecting erosion

● load – the heavier and sharper the load the greater the potential for erosion

● velocity – the greater the velocity the greater the potential for erosion

● gradient – increased gradient increases the rate of erosion

● geology – soft unconsolidated rocks such as sand and gravel are easily eroded

● discharge- the greater the discharge the greater the potential for erosion

● human impact- deforestation and dams interfere with the natural flow of the river and end up
increasing the rate of erosion.

River transport

The main types of transport in a river include:

Traction – involves movement of large particles / boulders by dragging or rolling along the river bed.

Saltation – is the bouncing of particles downstream along the river bed.

Suspension – is when light particles are held up by the current of flowing water.

Solution – is when soluble materials are carried in a dissolved state.

Floatation- leaves and twigs are carried o the surface of the river.

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 Rive
r deposition

This takes place when:

● the river’s velocity falls due to decrease in the gradient of the river.

● discharge gets reduced due to evaporation and high infiltration rates.

● the river enters a lake or sea and its competence is reduced to zero

● the river flows slowly on the inside of meanders.

● the channel bed widens causing increased friction which reduces the river’s competence

● the river overflows its banks into the flood plain as velocity gets reduced in the shallow waters
e.g. the walo of river Senegal , the Nile , the fadamas of Hausaland.

River energy

● this determines the river’s ability to erode, transport or deposit.

● About 95% of energy is used to overcome friction with the bed and banks.

Factors affecting river energy

Roughness of the channel

● The rougher the channel the more energy will be lost.

● Rough channel beds and banks reduce the river’s capacity to transport its load.

● In a smooth channel there is less friction so more energy is available for work.

● Channels with smooth beds and less obstacles have a higher capacity to transport its load.

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Rough channel Smooth channel

More friction reducing channel energy less friction high river energy

River discharge

● Discharge is the volume of water passing a given point over a set time.

● The higher the discharge, the greater the volume of the load being transported.

● River discharge is illustrated using a storm hydrograph.

Storm/flood hydrograph

● it shows how discharge of a river varies over a short time.

● It normally refers to an individual storm or a group of storms of not more than a few days.

● Before the storm starts the main supply of water to the stream is groundwater flow or baseflow.

● During the storm some of the water flows on the surface as overland flow or surface runoff and
this reaches the river quickly.
● The rising limb shows us how quickly the flood waters begin to rise whereas the recessional limb
is the speed with which the water level in the river declines after the peak.
● The peak flow is the maximum discharge of the river as a result of the storm.

● Lag time is the time between the peak of the storm and the maximum flow in the river.

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Gradient

● Steeper gradients should lead to higher velocities because of the influence of gravity.

River velocity

● Is the speed at which water flows in the channel.

● It is measured in metres per second.

● The faster the velocity of the river, the larger the load which can be transported.

River velocity across a meandering channel

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(i) Identify the river velocity at S. [1]

(ii) At which point is deposition most likely P, Q, R or S? [1]

(iii) Why is erosion more likely at point S than point P? [2]

River velocity across a uniform channel

------------------------------------------

Low velocity

High Velocity

● Lowest velocity is along the river bed and banks in both channels due to friction.

● In both channels velocity is highest slightly beneath the surface of the water because there is
least friction.
● In a normal channel velocity is faster at the centre while on the meandering channel velocity is
faster close to the deeper bank.

NB: Discharge, depth, width and velocity normally increase downstream but channel roughness and
gradient decrease downstream. Although river gradients decrease downstream the load carried is
smaller, and therefore easier to transport.

Relationship between river velocity and river processes (Hjulstrom Curve)

Stream capacity-the total load actually transported by a river –determined by discharge and velocity

Stream competence – maximum size of particle which a river is capable of carrying

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For transportation :

● smallest particles are moved at very low velocities because they are very light

● high velocities are required to transport pebbles , cobbles , boulders due to their large size

For erosion of particles :

● very small particles like silt and clay need very high velocities to be eroded because of their
coherent /cohesive nature
● cobbles and boulders require large velocities to be eroded because of their large size

● sand particles require the least velocity to be eroded because they are less coherent.

NB: for any particle size , the velocity required for its erosion is higher than that for it to be transported
so as to overcome inertia

For deposition of particles :

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 ● large / coarse particles are the first to be deposited when velocity decreases due to their large
size
● very light particles like clay and silt hardly settle even when velocity very low due to their light
nature

River Profiles

River profiles consist of long profile and cross profile.

The long profile is a line drawn from the source of the river to its mouth showing how the gradient
changes.

The cross profile is the shape of the channel from bank to bank.

Long profile cross profiles

The profiles can be divided into three segments namely :

1.Upper / youthful course

● Long profile shows that the gradient is very steep.

● The cross file shows a narrow V shaped valley.

● The river channel inside the valley is very shallow.

● erosion exceeds deposition with erosion being mainly vertical by hydraulic action and abrasion.

● Transportation is of mainly large boulders by traction and saltation.

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 ● Deposition is very little, mainly the largest particles are deposited on the river bed.

● Features likely to be found include waterfalls, rapids, potholes, gorges and interlocking spurs.

2.Middle /mature course

● The long profile displays a moderately steep gradient.

● The cross profile shows an open valley with a channel which is deeper.

● Erosion and deposition are balanced with erosion being mainly lateral by abrasion and attrition.

● Transportation of materials is mainly by saltation and suspension as particle size gets smaller.

● Deposition of sand and gravel occurs across the flood plain as friction reduces river’s energy.

3.Lower course

● the gradient is gentle, deposition exceeds erosion.

● The valley is wide and flat.

● The channel inside the valley is at its widest and deepest.

● Although velocity and discharge are highest, erosion is low because turbulence is lower and
particle size is small, reducing abrasion.
● Transportation is mainly of smaller particles by suspension and solution.

● Deposition of sand, silt and clay occurs on the flood plain and in the river mouth as the sea
absorbs river energy.

River landforms

Erosional features

Interlocking spurs

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 ● a river tends to take the easiest path down a slope, going around rocks that are resistant.

● This results in the river taking a winding course.

● with time, the bends in the river become more pronounced because water flows more swiftly
and is erosive.
● interlocking projections of highlands called SPURS are produced ,the undercut concave banks
form cliffs while the opposite convex banks where water is sluggish develop into slip-off slopes

Waterfall

● a waterfall forms where a band of hard rock lies over a soft rock.

● The softer rock is eroded faster than the harder rock creating a step.

● The power of falling water form a plunge pool with rock fragements at the foot of the waterfall
is due to abrasion and hydraulic action.
● The splashing water and eddy currents in the plunge pool lead to undercutting of the hard rock.

● The hard rock is left unsupported so it collapses.

● If the processes of undercutting and collapse are repeated over time, the waterfall will retreat
up the channel forming a steep sided gorge.

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QN: With reference to examples explain the benefits and examples that waterfalls bring to local
people.

Case Study :The Victoria Falls

● the Victoria Falls is a scenic attraction to both Zimbabwean and Zambian people.

● local people and international tourists visit the area promoting tourism

Tourism

● it provides employment for the local people as tour guides and in the hospitality industry ( in
hotels such as Elephant Hills, Victoria Falls hotel and Kingdom Hotel.)
● tourism is providing foreign currency to the Zimbabwean government from international
tourists who visit the country
● Victoria Falls provides recreation for both locals and foreigners ( bungee jumping , rafting ,
traditional dancing )
● tourism has developed other industries namely: horticulture as it provides food, transport as
tourists are brought by air , road and rail, construction as many hotels have been put up.

Problems associated

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 ● navigation problems as the falls suddenly break the river’s long profile

● pollution from littering by too many tourists

● noise pollution from the thunderous falling water

● there is cultural tourists bring in foreign language, dress, diet which maybe enticing to the local
people

Rapid

● steep section of the river channel where flow of water is ruffled by alternating bands hard and
soft rock .
● the hard rock resists erosion and juts out on the river bed causing turbulent flow.

Pot hole

Stone being swirled around by the current

Solid rock

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 ● this is a hole eroded in the solid rock of a river bed by the abrasive action of stones being swirled
around by the current
● with time potholes join to form bigger holes.

Gorge

● this is a deep , narrow, v-shaped valley caused by vertical erosion.

● common where waterfalls are receding eg below the Victoria Falls on the Zambezi river.

● It is caused by vertical erosion through abrasion, hydraulic action and corrosion in areas with
limestone.

Meanders

● Meanders are curving bends in a river channel.

● They are formed by both processes of erosion and deposition within the channels

● Water naturally flows in a helical pattern.

● Helical flow sends the fastest current towards the outer bend of the channel causing erosion.

● Eroded materials are transported towards the inner bend where there is slower moving current
causing deposition.
● lateral erosion is active where the current is swept to the outer concave bank undercutting it to
form a cliff.

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 ● at the inner bank where the current is slower is there is deposition forming a slip off slope or
point bar.
● by undercutting and depositing at the bends the river develops ever wider meanders

Point bars

● growth of point bars occurs on the convex bank

● reduced velocity results in deposition firstly of the coarser materials, as the bar grows
deposition of finer sediment occurs in the shallower water between the bar and the convex
bank
● vegetation may also grow further trapping sediment

Ox bow lakes

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 ● continued erosion creates a narrow neck between two meanders.

● Eventually, the neck is cut through and the river creates a new channel across the neck of the
meander.
● The old mender then becomes an oxbow lake when deposition seals the ends, completely
separating it from the river.

Depositional features

Levees

● These are banks of a river channel that are raised above the flood plain

● They are formed when flood waters deposit coarse materials (gravel and sand) on the edges of
the channel as river energy is reduced by friction.
● deposition occurs over a long period of time until the banks are raised above the flood plain.

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 ● when the river bursts its banks , finer materials are carried and deposited on the flood plain

Braiding

● braiding occurs when a river transports a very heavy load in relation to its velocity.

● If river discharge falls, the river deposits large amounts of its load forming multi-channels.

● Braiding is common in rivers that experience seasonal variations in discharge.

Flood plain

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 ● These are flat strips of land bordering river channels which are liable to flood.

● Deposition occurs on either side of the river banks when the river floods or overflows its banks.

● Flooding causes friction thereby reducing the velocity of flowing water.

● The river should be carrying large amount of sediments.

● The sediments are deposited on the flood plain.

● layer upon layer of alluvium builds the plain with each episode of flooding.

How human beings benefit from flood plains

● there is adequate water supply for irrigation purposes e.g. Muzarabani along the Zambezi River

● water transport may be used where the river is navigable

● fertile alluvial soils are used for farming

● plenty of water leads to HEP generation

● tourism and recreation are promoted through water sports (surfing, boat cruising)

● fishing is done to provide food

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 ● there is adequate water supply for domestic uses.

Problems associated with flood plains

● flooding leads to loss of life

● crops are destroyed by floods

● there is high prevalence of water borne diseases

● people may be attacked by crocodiles and hippos.

● siltation occurs due to stream bank cultivation.

Delta

● a delta is a flat, low lying deposit of sediment found at the mouth of the river.

● Deltas form when a river carrying its load meets the still water of the sea.

● The river loses velocity leading to deposition of the river load.

● Continued deposition blocks the river’s main channel leading to formation of distributaries.

Conditions favouring delta formation:

● the river should contain a lot of load

● clay particles are needed for flocculation where particles coagulate in salty water, become heavy
and get deposited.
● There should be absence of strong currents that sweep sediments into the deeper sea

● vegetation also increases the rate of deposition by slowing down the water

Delta types

● these include arcuate , estsuarine and bird’s foot deltas.

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Arcuate delta-a fan shaped delta whose coast forms an arc, e.g. the Nile delta

Bird’s foot-sediment deposits and the distributaries are shaped like a birds’ foot e.g. on the mouth of
river Omo where it enters lake Rudolf

Estuarine delta- a delta which forms within an estuary of a river and composed of sand banks divided by
narrow channels e.g.at the Zambesi mouth

Opportunities brought by deltas

Case study : Niger Delta, Nigeria

● The delta region is covered by mangrove swamp. The swamp provides mangrove trees which
are used for fuelwood by locals
● the mangrove swamps provide a habitat for good rice growing as no other plants can grow in
such wet conditions
● fish farming is highly promoted where 20 000 people are engaged providing the people with
food, employment and income.
● the mangrove vegetation protects the land from erosion by root binding from the sea waves.

● the delta has vast oil reserves which are being exploited by large foreign companies such as BP
and Shell
● ports have developed in the delta e.g. Port Harcourt and water transport has developed as
people shuttle between the ports.

Problems Associated With Deltas

● there are floods due to summer rains which drown people and rice fields

● there is high prevalence of water related water borne diseases

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 ● there is high risk of oil spillages from oil mines , these contaminate water causing suffocation of
aquatic life

Drainage Patterns

Importance of rivers to people

● they provide water for irrigation, domestic and recreational facilities

● HEP is generated e.g. Kariba on the Zambezi

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 ● They can be used as a means of transport

● waterfalls and rapids attract tourists who provide foreign currency

● gold panning can be done on flood plains.

● Fishing is done to get fish to supplement diet and income

● Water sports is be done eg boating, swimming

● fertile alluvial soils are used for agriculture.

Problems of rivers

● flooding when rivers overflow their banks

● water borne diseases

● they can house dangerous animals : hippos , crocodiles

Flooding

Causes

Natural causes

● high rainfall intensity compacts the ground promoting surface runoff and this triggers flooding.

● snow melt is increasing due to global warming thereby promoting flooding.

● Impermeable rocks and soils such as granite and clay respectively promote high surface runoff
which result in flood risk.
● tropical cyclones normally produce excessive prolonged rains promoting flooding.

Human causes

● deforestation for settlement and farmland increases bare surfaces which results in high rates of
runoff triggering flooding.
● Urbanisation results in the introduction of concrete pavements and tarred surfaces which
promote flooding.
● mismanagement of farm lands result in siltation of rivers

Impacts of flooding

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 ● They lead to water borne diseases such as cholera and typhoid.

● There is destruction of buildings and homes making people homeless.

● Crop lands are destroyed leading to food shortages.

● They cause loss of life due to people drowning.

● Infrastructure such as roads and bridges is destroyed.

● Electricity and telephone poles collapse.

Ways of reducing the impacts of floods

● Relocating people from low land areas reduces loss of life.

● Straightening river channels reduce overflow of water on meanders.

● Building artificial levees makes sure all discharge is accommodated within channels.

● Building dams controls flow of water in the river.

● Afforestation is to reduce or delay runoff.

● emergency rescue teams are put in place to evacuate affected people, to distribute food,
medicines, clothing and blankets.

For a named river you have studied, describe the causes and impacts of flooding. Explain what has
been done to reduce flooding.

Case study: Mississippi river

Causes

The 1993 Mississippi floods were caused by heavy rainfall which occurred in April and saturated the
upper Mississippi basin. Thunderstorms in June caused flash floods. In mid July 180 mm of rain were
recorded in one day. Levees in nearby towns collapsed leading to water overflowing the banks of the
river. Many states such Iowa, Missouri, Tennessee and Kansas have some of their settlements on the
floodplain of the Mississippi. Large areas have concrete or impermeable surfaces which have reduced
infiltration. The concrete pavements mean that the lag time is reduced so water enters the river more
quickly.

Impacts

The Mississippi flood of 1993 destroyed crops worth US$6.5 billion. 45 000 houses were destroyed by
these floods. The flood also flooded the water treatment plant in Alton, cutting off water to the town. It

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also destroyed 140 miles of roads and 8 bridges in Illinois. In Missouri, 13 air ports were closed. About
45 people lost their lives due to drowning or illnesses related to the floods.

Flood control measures

To control floods in the Mississippi basin levees were heightened in to over 15 metres and were
strengthened. By 1993 there were almost 3000km of levees along the main river and its tributaries.
Mississippi was strengthened by cutting meanders. Large spill ways were built to take excess water
during times of floods eg Bonnet Carre flood way diverts flood water into Lake Pontchartrain and the
sea. The flow of major tributaries (Missouri, Ohio and Tennessee) was controlled by a series of dams.
Afforestation was done to reduce or delay runoff. These measures greatly succeeded because since
1927 floods were controlled until 1993. The death toll in 1993 registered only 45 compared to217 in
1927.

River investigations ( P 4)

Safety precautions when conducting river investigations

● Wear protective clothing such as wellington boots and gloves.

● Wear waterproof clothing to keep warm.

● Keep on lookout for dangerous animals.

● Carry mobile phone for emergency.

● Complete fieldwork before it is dark.

● Don’t do fieldwork in a flooded, deep or fast flowing river.

How velocity is measured

Hypothesis 1: velocity varies across the channel.

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Hypothesis 2: velocity increases downstream.

Materials needed : floats, stop watch, tape measure, poles, recording sheet.

Procedure

● measure a distance of 10 m along a river using a tape measure and mark the start and finishing
points using ranging poles.
● Put a float such as an orange or dog biscuit into the river.

● Time the float over the distance using a stop watch.

● repeat the process at different points across the channel and calculate average.

● Calculate velocity by dividing distance by time.

● For example, using the diagram below:

Problem
s which maybe encountered by students in measuring river velocity

● There may be student error in timing of floats.

● floats may get stuck in the channel by water plants or objects such as rocks.

● Floats may be affected by blowing away wind.

● Measurements may not be easy to take at different points because floats may not move in a
straight line.

Explain pimprovements students can make to increase the reliability and accuracy of their results.

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 ● increase the number of days of conducting the investigation.

● conduct the investigation during a different season for comparison.

● increase the number of sites from which to conduct the investigation (3 t0 8 sites)

● use a flowmeter – a digital equipment that is used to measure river velocity within different
parts of the river channel

How a flowmeter is used

● Put a flowmeter into the river holding it vertically.

● Stand downstream or on the side of the flow meter.

● Propeller must be facing upstream.

● When propeller spins, the display on the flow meter shows the velocity of flow.

● Read the speed shown on the display.

● Several readings are taken at the same site and average is obtained.

Advantages of a flowmeter

● It gives instant readings/faster

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 ● It is precise or accurate

● It is easy to use

● There are less chances of making mistakes in reading

● It is easier to reset.

Disadvantages of a flowmeter

● it is expensive

● battery may run out

River depth

● refers to the vertical height of water from the river bed to the water surface .

● it is measured in metres by a metre rule

How to measure river depth

● insert two poles on both banks of the river.

● Stretch a knotted rope at 50 cm intervals from one pole to another across the channel.

● use a metre rule to measure depth at every 50 cm interval across the channel.

● The zero end of the metre rule should settle on the river bed.

● Take the reading on the metre rule on the surface of the water.

● find the average depth by adding all the depths and divide by the number of points

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Average depth = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4 d5 + d6 + d7

Measurement of river width

● put ranging poles on either bank of the river.

● Stretch a tape measure across the channel from one pole to the other.

● Make sure the tape measure is stretched tight.

● Take the reading from the tape measure and record.

River discharge

● refers to the volume of water passing through a given cross section of the river per unit of time.

● It is measured in cubic meters per second using the formula :

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RIVER DISCHARGE (Q) = CROSS SECTIONAL AREA × VELOCITY

How to calculate river discharge

● measure the river velocity.

● measure the width of the river from bank to bank using a tape measure

● measure the depth of the river at the centre using a metre rule from bank to bank at 0.5 m
intervals
● find the average depth from the respective depths measured

● then multiply river width by average depth to get cross sectional area.

● get river discharge by multiplying cross sectional area by river velocity.

Wetted Perimeter

● It is the part of the channel cross section (river banks and bed ) which the water is in contact
with

How to measure the wetted perimeter

● use a chain

● work across the river bed from the water level on one side to the other side of the river

● a chain is be placed along the river bed from bank to bank , the end points are knotted.

● measure the length of the wet part of the chain and record the length in (m) on the recording
sheet.

bank bank

Wetted perimeter water

Particle size and shape

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 ● rivers transport different particle sizes with various shapes.

● particle size decreases and shape smoothens downstream (rough edged boulders are common
in the upper course , by the time they get to the lower course they will be smaller and
smoother)

Boulders in the upper

course

smaller and smoother rocks

in the lower course

Describe how students can measure the rock size and shape.

Hypothesis 1: pebble size decreases downstream.

Hypothesis 2: pebble roundness increases downstream.

Rock pebble

d diameter

● a ruler can be used to measure the long axis of the pebble in mm

● to be more accurate a veneer callipers can be used to measure the pebble size

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 ● you tighten the callipers around the long axis of the pebble, remove the pebble and measure the
gap on the callipers using a ruler.
● use a roundness index chart to determine the rock shape

● use eye estimation to compare the roundness of the pebble with the roundness index chart

QN: Suggest improvements that could be taken to make their results on pebble size and shape more
reliable

● surveys should be done more frequently during the day

● more survey sites should be chosen to give greater coverage.

● sample more rocks at such sites and find averages

● repeat survey in different seasons

● measure weight of rocks to determine size

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 ● more students should use the roundness index chart to check the smoothness of the rock
pebbles

Pollution Investigation

How to investigate water pollution

● decide on the number of sites to be used for investigation along the channel

● devise a suitable recording sheet for recording the results of the visual survey i e checking on
living organisms in the water such as fish and vegetation.
● test acidity of water ( use a pH meter )

● test clarity of water ( use the filtration process )

● measure water temperature

Investigation of river gradient

Equipment used: ranging poles, clinometer, tape measure, string

How to conduct the investigation

● Put ranging poles along transect line in holes of same depth in the sand .

● Make sure the poles are vertical.

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 ● Use tape measure to measure distance between the two ranging poles.

● Use a string to link the ranging poles at the same height.

● Hold a clinometer at the height marked by a string on the ranging poles.

● Allow the clinometers to adjust to the angle

● Read the angle and record it in the recording sheet.

Digital clinometer

This is an application on a phone

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Advantages of a digital clinometer

● It gives instant reading / faster / quicker

● it is precise / accurate measurement or reading / exact figure

● it is easy to use / clear to read

● there are less chances of making mistake in reading

● it is easier to reset

● it can send results to computer / save data

● it is easy to carry / portable

Disadvantages of a digital clinometer

● some students may not understand how to use the application

● phone may be dropped into river / phone is fragile / phone gets wet

● Phone may not be charged up/ battery may run out

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