G E N E R A L G E O L O G Y A N D OIL O C C U R R E N C E S OF

MIDDLE MAGDALENA VALLEY, COLOMBIA1

LUIS G. M O R A L E S A N D T H E C O L O M B I A N P E T R O L E U M I N D U S T R Y 2
Bogota, Colombia

ABSTRACT
The Middle Magdalena Valley is a depressed area of some 12,500 square miles lying be-
tween the Central and Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes. Its sedimentary fill ranges in
age from Paleozoic to Recent. In Cretaceous time this area formed only a small central part of
a much more extensive basin area, the Colombian geosyncline, whereas, of the basin which de-
veloped in Eo-Oligocene time, it formed a western shallow margin, deepening rapidly eastward.
Commercial production of heavier asphaltic- and naphthenic-base oils is being obtained from
Tertiary reservoirs at La Cira-Infantas, Casabe, Velasquez, and Cantagallo. Some lighter paraffinic
crudes have been found in Cretaceous reservoirs at Buturama and Totumal. The location of
these areas with respect to their position in the Tertiary and Cretaceous basins supports the
hypothesis that heavy oils form first and migrate to the margins or shelf areas, and the lighter
oils are confined to traps located in a more central part of the depositional basin.

PART I—GENERAL GEOLOGY3

INTRODUCTION

This paper is presented in response to the request of the Technical Program

Committee of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists who solicited a
contribution from Colombia as part of the symposium on the habitat of oil, the
theme of the 1955 annual meeting of the Association.
As a result of this request the operating companies in Colombia appointed a
committee consisting of L. G. Morales, International Petroleum (Colombia) Ltd.
(Intercol), senior author and speaker; W. C. Hatfield, Texas Petroleum Company;
S. H. Jones, Concesionaria de Petroleo Shell-Condor; C. E. Mohler, Empresa Colom-
biana de Petroleos; A. D. Graves, Socony-Vacuum Oil Company; and C. R. Goss,
Richmond Petroleum Company, to compile and edit this paper.

LOCATION

The republic of Colombia occupies the northwestern corner of the continent of

1 Read before the Association at New York, March 30, 1955. Manuscript received, February

16, 19S6. Company affiliations of authors at that time are indicated in footnote 2.
2 L. G. Morales and D. J. Podesta of International Petroleum (Colombia) Ltd.; W. C.

Hatfield and H. Tanner of Texas Petroleum Company; S. H. Jones, M . H. S. Barker, and

D. J. O'Donoghue of Concesionaria de Petroleo Shell-Condor; C. E. Mohler and E. P. Dubois
of Empresa Colombiana de Petroleos; C. Jacobs of Socony-Vacuum Oil Company; and C. R.
Goss of Richmond Petroleum Company.
3 By L. G. Morales. Grateful acknowledgement is extended to the managements of the

various companies for their willing cooperation and for their permission to release data.
Special thanks are extended to the following, who gave freely of their time and effort:
D. J. Podesta and V. Petters, International Petroleum (Colombia) Ltd.; M. H. S. Barker,
Shell; H. Tanner, Texas; E. P. Dubois, Empresa; C. Jacobs, Socony-Vacuum.
Finally, special mention and tribute must be paid to the earlier workers whose contribution
to the geology of the area paved the way for the discovery and development of the present oil
fields. Notable among these are O. B. Hopkins, O. C. Wheeler, T . A. Link, M. Mulholland,
A. A. Olsson, P. Dickey, A. K . McGill and W. J. Sanderson of International Petroleum;
D. Trumpy, A. Gansser and others of Shell-Condor; W. D. Briikner of Socony; W. S. Olson,
J. Bower, W. C. Hatfield of Texas; E. Hubach of the Instituto Geologico Nacional and scores
of others whose unpublished reports have been utilized freely in the compilation of this paper.
 FIG. I.—Index map of Colombia, showing the Middle Magdalena Valley area.

South America. It is bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea, on the east by
the Republics of Venezuela and Brazil, on the south by the Republics of Ecuador
and Peru, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean and the Republic of Panama
(Fig. i ) .
 PHYSIOGRAPHY

The Magdalena Valley, a physiographic unit, is a present-day basin which has

significance only in late Tertiary beds. It has been arbitrarily divided, at the town
of Honda, into the Upper Magdalena Valley to the south, and the Middle Mag-
dalena Valley to the north. Thus defined, the Middle Magdalena Valley extends
east-west from the Central to the Eastern Andes and north-south from the vicinity
of the town of El Banco to the town of Honda. This area embraces approximately
32,000 square kilometers (12,500 square miles). The Middle Magdalena Valley,
therefore, corresponds to the Middle Magdalena present structural basin, but differs
greatly in area and structure from the original Cretaceous geosyncline, and it is
possible that it also differs from the original Eo-Oligocene deposition basin (Fig. 2).

STRATIGRAPHY

PRE-CRETACEOUS

Little is known about the history of the geological events in Colombia prior to
the late Mesozoic period. In the foothills adjoining the valley there are exposures of
rocks which range in age from Precambrian to Jura-Triassic, but because of the
lack of petroleum prospects these have not been studied in detail. The crystalline
basement is composed of various types of plutonic igneous and associated meta-
morphic rocks consisting for the most part of contorted schists, phyllites, and
chloritic quartzites. The Paleozoics are made up of hard, crystalline limestone,
marbles, and slates. These are overlain by the Giron, a series of predominantly red
beds composed mainly of conglomerates, siltstones, and slates with occasional
sandstones, argillites, and andesitic or rhyolitic intrusions. Because the Giron is not
believed to have commercial petroleum possibilities, it is at present considered
basement. For the purpose of this paper it suffices to say that crystalline and meta-
morphic basement, overlain in places by these older rocks, forms the core of the
bounding mountain ranges of the valley (Fig. 3).

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM

Rocks of Cretaceous age are widely distributed throughout Colombia. In com-

parison with the Tertiary, these sediments exhibit extremely regular facies in the
Middle Magdalena Valley, indicating uniform conditions of deposition. These
strata attain a maximum thickness in the valley of over 4,000 meters (Fig. 4).

LOWER CRETACEOUS

All Cretaceous sediments of Barremian age and older are referred to the lower
Cretaceous in this text. This includes the Tambor, Rosa Blanca, and part of the
Paja formations (Fig. 5).
TAMBOR FORMATION

Name and type section.—The Tambor was first named by H. D. Hedberg in

1931 in an unpublished report. The section is exposed along the Bucaramanga-
Puerto Wilches railroad in the Lebrija Gorge between kilometers 92 and 95, near
the village of El Tambor.
 Lithology.—At the type section and as far south as the Zapatoca road, the
formation consists in its lower part of red shales, red sandstones, and red conglom-
erates which are composed entirely of pebbles and cobbles (maximum diameter 45
centimeters) of fine grained, red sandstone, quartzitic sandstone, and shale, which
have the aspect of Giron rocks. Scarce limestone beds in the upper part of the forma-
tion contain Lower Cretaceous fossils.
 FIG. 3.—Generalized geologic map of the Middle Magdalena Valley. A—A', B-B', C-C', D-D',
and E-E' are lines of cross sections in Fig. 9.

Thickness and relationships.—The total thickness at the type section is 650

meters, but this thickness varies considerably over the area. Regionally, the Tambor
rests unconformably on Giron or older rocks. The presence of rounded pebbles and
cobbles of the underlying Giron formation in the basal conglomerates of the Tambor
 FIG. 4.—Isopachous map of the Cretaceous sediments of the Middle Magdalena Valley.

clearly demonstrates that an erosional interval is present in the depositional

record at the end of Giron time. The Tambor for the most part is of continental
origin, its sediments being derived from Giron and older rocks, dumped out over an
irregular erosional surface to fill the existing topographical depressions. It is believed
 S T A N D A R D N O M E N C L A T U R E

F O R M I D D L E M A G D A L E N A V A L L E Y - C O L O M Bl A
SUBDIVISIONS
•SYSTEM I 5 TA N DAP D NOMENCLATURE T Y P E S E C T i O M A N D / O R L O C A L I T
GULF COAST
PLEISTOCENE.
MESA GROUP
PUOCENE

MIOCENE REAL GROUP

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COLORADO
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OLLGOCENE
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ESMERALDAS
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. HAUTER T V ! AN J
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JURA-| GIRON FORMATION

TRIAS, ( U N D I F F E R E N T I A T E D ]

FIG. 5.—Standard nomenclature for the Middle Magdalena Valley adopted by the
operating companies in Colombia.

that the lithological change between the Giron and the Tambor formations, the
erratic thickness of the latter over relatively short distances, and the rounded
pebbles of Giron within the Tambor, clearly demonstrate this unconformable rela-
tionship in spite of the fact that it is commonly not observed locally.
Age and correlation.—Although the origin of the formation is largely conti-
nental, it passes in its highest portion into upper neritic facies. Fauna collected in
this uppermost portion in Quebrada Las Penitas, ten kilometers northeast of the
Totumal field, is of upper Hauterivian age. The assemblage collected from this
locality contains Ckoffatella decipiens Schlumberger, Nodosaria sp., Robulus sp.,
Pholadomya robinaldina buchiana (Karsten), and an assortment of heavy shelled
pelecypods, echinoid spines and bryozoa (Petters, 1954). The Ckoffatella fauna
occurs in Colombia a short distance below Barremian ammonites. In two cases it is
accompanied by upper Hauterivian ammonites (at Villeta, Cundinamarca, and at
Los Santos, Santander). The assemblage marks the Barremian-Hauterivian bound-
ary, but it is not definitely established whether it actually reaches into the Bar-
remian. Farther to the south, and nearer to the type locality, the top of the Tambor
formation is much older. The Valaginian (to lower Hauterivian) assemblages
Polyptichites polytichus Keyserling, Toxaster roulini, Agassiz, Exogyra boussin-
gaultii Dietrich, was described by H. Buergl (1954) from the upper 120 meters
of the Tambor formation four kilometers south of the town of Villa de Leiva,
Department of Santander. On the basis of lithology, paleontology, or position in
the section, the Tambor formation is correlative with the Arcabuco as used by the
Empresa and Intercol, the "Basal Sandstone" of Shell, and the "Lower Caqueza"
of Richmond (Fig. 6).
ROSA B L A N C A FORMATION

Name and type section.—The name was originated by O. C. Wheeler in 1929

in an unpublished report. The name comes from Cerro Rosa Blanca, a high ridge
about five kilometers north of the northeast corner of the DeMares Concession.
This is the type locality. Although no definite type section was designated by
Wheeler, the one generally accepted is that in the Rio Sogamoso, about 1-1.5 kilo-
meters upstream from the town of Tablazo.
Lithology.—The formation at the type locality is composed of hard, bluish-
gray, coarse-textured, fossiliferous, massive limestones, with many marly beds
grading into black, shaly, extremely fine-textured limestone at the top.
Thickness and relationships.—The Rosa Blanca formation is about 425 meters
thick on the Rio Sogamoso, but its thickness varies greatly over the area. It lies
concordantly on the Tambor formation.
Age and correlation.—The Rosa Blanca was deposited under upper neritic,
nearshore conditions as evidenced by the presence of heavy-shelled mollusks, and
reworked, rounded limestone pebbles, typical of a shallow marine environment. The
age of the formation ranges from mostly Hauterivian in the south to Barremian in
the north. This time transgression is evident from species collected in the northern
part of the valley, west of the town of Arenal (Petters, 1954), where Hamulina,
Nicklesia, and Pseudohaploceras, were found in the deeper part of the formation.
Pulchellia occurs slightly higher in the formation in Quebrada Santa Rosa, fifteen
kilometers southwest of the town of Morales, Department of Bolivar. However,
at Cienaga Simiti, farther to the south Nicklesia occurs just below the top of the
formation, thus indicating the Rosa Blanca is becoming older southward. Farther
south still, on the Barrancabermeja-San Gil road, between the bridge over the Rio
Fonce and the confluence of this river with the Rio Suarez, the following fossils
were collected—Acanthodiscus, Crioceras, Favrella, Kilianella?, Olcostephanus,
Thurmanniceras, Trigonia transitora quintucoensis Weaver, Natica cf. bulimoides
Weaver, Texaster roulini Agassiz. This fossil association is evidence for the Hau-
terivian age of this formation in the DeMares area.
The Rosa Blanca formation is correlated with the "Lower Bolivar" limestone
of Shell, the "Upper Caqueza" of Richmond, and the lower part of the "Basal Lime-
stone" group used by Intercol in the Totumal area.
PAJA FORMATION

Name and type section.—The formation is typically exposed on the north bank
 NOMENCLATURE CORRELATION CHART
FOR MIDDLE MAGDALENA VALLEY
STANDARD EMPRESA SHELL | RICHMOND TEXAS INTERCOL

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SALTO LIMESTONE FRONTERA VELEZ
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PASTURE
SIMITI SHALE TABLAZO PASTURE SHALE (NO NAME)
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PAJA FORMATION PAJA LA PAJA SHALE (NO NAME)

BASAL LIMESTONE
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of Quebrada La Paja where it enters the Rio Sogamoso, and was first described
by O. C.Wheeler.
Lithology.—The section is composed of shales, uniformly black, thinly lami-
nated, slightly calcareous, and commonly micaceous and silty. Being very incompe-
tent, entire hills composed of these shales slump down into the valleys. Resistant
ledges are rare. The lower 250-300 meters of the formation contain concretions of
limestone, septarian nodules, and calcite veins. The limestone concretions are oblate
spheroids which reach 30 centimeters in their greatest diameter, whereas the septaria
are somewhat smaller, with their cracks filled with calcite. Cephalopods and worm
tubes are common in this part of the section. The upper part of the formation seems
to grade into the overlying Tablazo marls and to assume more of the character of
those beds.
Thickness and relationships.—The thickness of the formation varies greatly
over the area, ranging from a minimum measurement of 12 5 meters to a maximum
of 625 meters at the type locality. The stratigraphic relationship with the under-
lying Rosa Blanca is concordant and the contact is relatively sharp.
Age and correlation.—The conditions which prevailed during Paja time seem
to represent a gradual deepening of the sea starting in the south and progressing
north. The age of the formation ranges from Barremian and Aptian in the south
to Aptian in the north. A comparison of the sequence of fossils collected from a
section which starts at the bridge of the San Gil-Barrancabermeja road over the Rio
Suarez, and follows the road to the town of Barichara, Department of Santander,
with fossils from sections southwest of the town of El Banco, Department of Bolivar,
illustrates these conditions. At the Rio Suarez bridge the ammonite Nicklesia (lower
Barremian) becomes extinct near the base of the formation. It is followed by the
extinction point of Pulchellia (middle Barremian) and still higher by Heteroceras
and Santandericeras (upper Barremian). The Aptian ammonites Cheloniceras and
Colombiceras occur in the upper two thirds of the formation. These conditions
persist at least as far north as Quebrada Canabraval and Quebrada Sucio, about
32 kilometers northwest of Puerto Wilches (Richmond Petroleum Company, unpub-
lished reports). At Cienaga Simiti about 45 kilometers farther north this fossil
sequence is represented in the Paja formation only from Pulchellia (middle Bar-
remian) upward, as Nicklesia has already become extinct in the underlying Rosa
Blanca. In Quebrada La Joga, 20 kilometers to the north, Santandericeras (upper
Barremian) marks the bottom of the Paja. In Quebrada Palma Estelar another 12
kilometers to the north, the lower Aptian association of Ancyloceras and Cheloni-
ceras was encountered at the base of the formation. There is no evidence of a similar
strong time transgression for the top of the formation. The upper Aptian ammonites
Dujrenoya and the less restricted Cheloniceras occur in its higher level as far
north as 5 kilometers west of the town of Morales, Department of Bolivar.
The formation is correlative with the Paja of the Empresa, the La Paja of
Socony, an unnamed shale section of Shell, to the lower part of the Velez forma-
tion of Richmond, and the lower Villeta of Texas in the Velasquez area. The Paja
formation correlates also with the upper part of the "Basal Limestone" group of
Intercol as used in the Totumal area.
 MIDDLE CRETACEOUS

Aptian, Albian, and Cenomanian sediments are considered as middle Cretaceous

in this paper. The formations included, from older to younger, are part of the Paja
formation, the Tablazo limestone, Simiti shale, and Salto limestone. (Fig. 5).

TABLAZO LIMESTONE

Name and type section.—The Tablazo limestone caps the first mountain east of
the town of Tablazo, and is also well exposed along the trail from Tablazo to Cerro
Rosa Blanca on the north side of the Sogamoso river (0. C. Wheeler, unpublished
report).
Lithology.—At the type locality the Tablazo consists of extremely fossiliferous,
massive-bedded limestones and marls, the former predominating in the upper part
and the latter in the lower part of the formation. The marls are very limy and might
well be termed "clayey limestones." They exhibit no evidence of lamination because
of the abundance of large fossils irregularly oriented to the bedding. The lime-
stones, in contrast, are hard, dull, bluish gray, coarse textured, and extremely
fossiliferous. In other areas, such as at Quebrada Bejelano, the Tablazo is repre-
sented by a series of black, shaley, in places micaceous, fine-textured limestones
containing large pelecypods and concretions of pyrite and limestone.
Thickness and relationships.—The thickness of the formation ranges from 150
meters at the type section to 325 meters in other localities. The contact with the
underlying Paja shales is conformable and gradational. In general, the Tablazo
forms moderate ridges in contrast to the softer shales above and below.
Age and correlation.—The fossil assemblages collected to date in this unit indicate
an upper neritic environment in the Rio Sogamoso area, to middle neritic in the
northern part of the valley. Although the Tablazo is rich in large pelecypods such
as Trigonia hondana Lea, etc., no ammonites were found in the Rio Sogamoso area.
However, there it is underlain by upper Aptian beds of the Paja formation and over-
lain by shales carrying the Albian ammonite Lyelliceras, thus limiting the age of the
Tablazo to upper Aptian-lower Albian. This age assignment is further confirmed
in the Cienaga Simiti area by the occurrence of the ammonites Uhligella, Chelonl-
ceras, Parahoplites, and higher in the section, by Douvilleiceras.
The Tablazo limestone is correlated with (Fig. 5) the Tablazo Ridge limestone
of Socony, the "Upper Bolivar" limestone of Shell, a limy development in the
Velez of Richmond and the Villeta of Texas. Tentatively, it is assumed that the
"Calcareous Member" used by Intercol in the Totumal area is correlative with the
Tablazo limestone. However, this correlation is as yet uncertain though further
studies may substantiate this interpretation.

SIMITI SHALE

Name and type section.—The name was first used by a group of Intercol
geologists in 1953, to designate the excellent outcrops of this part of the section
exposed along the south bank of the Cienaga Simiti.
Lithology.—The formation consists of soft, platy, carbonaceous, gray to black,
locally calcareous and concretionary shale. The concretions are commonly fossilifer-
ous and locally contain light green oil in vugs and in the septal chambers of the
ammonites. The concretions are more numerous in the uppermost part of the for-
mation where they reach a size of three meters in their longest dimension. Locally,
near the very top of the formation, thin conglomeratic streaks occur which are com-
posed of small pebbles, phosphate nodules, fish teeth, and sand. Topographically,
the formation is distinctive because of its valley-forming character.
Thickness and relationships.—At the type section the Simiti shale measures 410
meters but has a range of 250-650 meters throughout the area. Its relationship with
the underlying Tablazo limestone is conformable and the contact is relatively sharp.
Age and correlation.—Sediments of the Simiti shale indicate a lower to middle
neritic environment, becoming slightly shallower towards the upper part. The for-
mation is Albian in age, an assignment based on excellent fossil evidence found near
the town of Simiti. From the collections gathered there the following diagnostic
ammonites have been identified. Douvilleiceras, Lyelliceras, Parahoplites, Uhligella
representing the lower Albian, Lyelliceras and Oxytropidoceras representing two
different levels of the middle Albian, Brancoceras, Pervinquieria and the foraminifer
Haplostiche texana (Conrad) representing upper Albian (Petters, 1954).
The Simiti shale is correlated with the Tablazo Pasture formation of the
Empresa, with the Tablazo Pasture formation of Socony (excepting the limestone
development at the top), with an unnamed shale section of Shell and with the
middle portion of the Velez of Richmond and the Villeta of Texas. More concretely,
the Simiti shale corresponds with that part of the "Middle Shale" (Fig. 5) immedi-
ately above the "Calcareous Member" as used by Intercol in the Totumal area.

SALTO LIMESTONE

Name and type section.—The name was adopted by the committee in charge
of this paper to satisfy a nomenclature requirement for this limestone development
of formational extent. The type section for this unit is the Quebrada El Salto, ap-
proximately 7 kilometers northeast of the Totumal field.
Lithology.—The Salto limestone at the type section is argillaceous, dark gray
when fresh, weathering light gray to reddish gray, dense, hard, with numerous thin
interbeds of black, calcareous, thinly plated, medium soft shale, locally containing
ovoid limestone concretions. Topographically, it constitutes a marked ridge former.
Thickness and relationships.—The thickness at the type section is 50 meters
although at Casabe it has increased to 125 meters. The Salto limestone lies con-
formably upon the Simiti shale with which it makes a sharp contact.
Age and correlation.—The environment of the formation is shallow marine of
upper Albian to Cenomanian age. The upper Albian age assignment is based on the
following ammonites collected at the Cienaga Simiti: Brancoceras, Knemiceras,
Neoharpoceras, Turrillites. The Cenomanian age assignment is founded on the
presence of Exogyra squamata D'Orbigny collected at the town of Morales and
from the San Vicente area, and also from a core of this formation taken in Totumal
No. 3. In addition, the ammonite Calycoceras occurs on the east bank of Cienaga
Simiti, 17 kilometers south of the town of Morales.
The Salto Limestone correlates with the limestone beds in the upper part of
the Tablazo formation as used by Socony, with the Frontera Limestone of Shell, and
with a limestone development in the Velez of Richmond and the Villeta of Texas,
It forms the lowermost part of the La Luna as used by Intercol in the Totumal area.
The Empresa, at this date, has not recognized this formation. Nevertheless, Wheeler
in his Sogamoso section described it as a "fossil reef carrying many Exogyra and
Pelecypoda."
UPPER CRETACEOUS

This subdivision embraces all Cretaceous strata above the base of the Turonian.
The formations included are the La Luna and Umir (Fig. 5).

LA L U N A FORMATION

This name is taken from the type locality in the district of Perija, Venezuela, as
defined by Hedberg and Sass (1937). The name was probably first used by geolo-
gists of the Caribbean Petroleum Company. As the lithology of the formation is
markedly similar in Colombia, the stratigraphic committee for this paper decided
to retain the name of La Luna to demonstrate the remarkable regional extent of this
unit. However, in Colombia, the formation can be subdivided into three members,
the Salada, Pujamana, and Galembo.

SALADA MEMBER

Name and type section.—The name was first used in an unpublished report by
O. C. Wheeler. Typical exposures occur on the north bank of the Rio Sogamoso
opposite the mouth of the Quebrada Salada.
Lithology.—The unit is composed of hard, black, thin-bedded, finely laminated,
limy shales that appear like slates in outcrop. Occasional thin beds of black, fine-
textured limestone are present. An outstanding characteristic of this member is the
occurrence of streaks and concretions of pyrite, some of which are practically pure
pyrite, whereas others are intimately mixed with limestone or form the nucleus of
limestone concretions. These are elliptical in cross section and generally 10 to 15
centimeters in their greatest diameter. The Salada member is expressed topo-
graphically as a low ridge on the north side of the Rio Sogamoso.
Thickness and relationships.—The member ranges in thickness between 50 and
100 meters, and lies conformably on the Salto Limestone. As the contact is grada-
tional, it is locally obscure.
Age and correlation.—The indicated environment for these sediments is that
of a relatively deep sea with badly ventilated bottom water which did not allow
the development of a benthonic microfauna. Based on Inoceramus labiatus Schlo-
theim collected from the type section on the Sogamoso and the ammonites Fagesia,
Mammites, Metoicoceras from exposures in the Quebrada Agua Blanca, 8 kilometers
northeast of the Totumal field, a lower Turonian age has been assigned to the Salada
member. The abundance of planktonic foraminifera and radiolaria and the absence
of benthonic micro-organisms is characteristic of these beds.
The Salada member correlates with the upper part of the Salada formation of
the Empresa, with at least all of the "Lower La Sorda" formation of Socony, with
the bottom portion of an unnamed shale section as used by Shell, and with a part of
the Velez of Richmond and Villeta of Texas. Intercol has not recognized this sub-
division in the Totumal area, but it is possibly that portion of the La Luna which
falls immediately below the Totumal shale.
 PUJAMANA MEMBER

Name and type section.—The name was first used by Wheeler in an unpublished
report to designate the strata exposed in the Quebrada of the same name, a tributary
of the Rio Sogamoso.
Lithology.—Typically, the unit consists of gray to black, calcareous, thin-
bedded shale. Due to the incompetence of this member outcrops are generally de-
formed by slumping.
Thickness and relationships.—Due to the plasticity of these shales and the
associated distortion of outcrops, surface measurements are unreliable. However,
existing estimates of the thickness of this unit range between 50 and 225 meters.
Age and correlation.—The depositional environment for the Pujamana is the
same as the one described for the Salada, that is, deep sea and badly ventilated
bottom water. Its age is upper Turonian to possibly lower Coniacian. Fossils in this
member are not abundant but species of Anomia and Inoceramus, as well as plank-
tonic foraminifera and radiolaria are common. In Quebrada Aguablanca, northeast
of the Totumal field the Pujamana is both over and underlain by Turonian beds,
whereas on the opposite flank of the Magdalena Valley the overlying Galembo mem-
ber is of Coniacian age indicating some time transgression of the Pujamana-Galembo
boundary.
The Pujamana member correlates with the Pujamana formation of the Empresa,
most of the "Upper La Sorda" of Socony, the middle portion of an unnamed shale
section of Shell, and the upper portion of the Velez of Richmond and Villeta of Texas.
As used by Intercol it correlates with the Totumal shale of the La Luna.

GALEMBO MEMBER

Name and type section.—This unit is typically exposed where the Sogamoso
River cuts through the Galembo ridge, and also on the west side of Quebrada
Pujamana near its mouth. There are, however, numerous other sections throughout
the area which afford equally good exposures.
Lithology.—The Galembo is predominantly a calcareous shale with interbeds of
thin, argillaceous limestones. The shales are hard, black, thin bedded, with numer-
ous discoidal, ammonite-bearing limestone concretions which reach eight meters in
their maximum dimension. These strata are commonly intercalated with thin layers
of bedded, blue-black cherts. Near the top of the formation there is a fossil-fish
horizon that is remarkably persistent in the Sogamoso area which consists of bone
fragments, rare teeth, and many perfectly preserved vertebrae. Topographically, the
Galembo is a pronounced ridge former.
Thickness and relationships.—The thickness ranges from 180 meters at the type
section on the Sogamoso River, to 350 meters in other parts of the valley. The
Galembo member lies conformably on the Pujamana.
Age and correlation.—Similar environmental conditions as during Pujamana
time prevailed also during the deposition of the lower Galembo. However, the upper
part of this member was deposited in a shallower sea, with the septic conditions of
the bottom water having disappeared. Most of the Middle Magdalena Valley was
under a faunistic influence from the south during upper Coniacian time. At the
end of this interval faunas from the north began to make their appearance as far
south as the Totumal area. The Galembo member ranges in age from the uppermost
Turonian through the Coniacian and possibly into the Santonian. The Turonian age
assignment is based on the ammonite Metoicoceras collected from the base of the
section in Quebrada Aguablanca northeast of the Totumal field. The Coniacian
ammonite Peroniceras was identified stratigraphically higher in the section in the
same quebrada. On the western side of the valley 2.5 kilometers southeast of the
town of Simiti the Coniacian marker Barroisiceras occurs at the very base of the
member. This ammonite suite is typical of the lower Galembo and occurs at many
localities throughout the area. In the upper part of the member, megafossils gradu-
ally disappear and the Globigerina-Guembelina-Radiolaria assemblage is replaced
by an increasing amount of benthonic forms. The following foraminiferal zones
(Petters, 1955) occur from bottom to top in the upper half of the Galembo—Anoma-
lina redmondii zonule, Bolivina explkata level, and the Marginullna curvisepta
zonule. Proof that the Anomalina redmondii zonule is Coniacian is that the
Coniacian ammonites Barroisiceras and Peroniceras were found associated with this
assemblage on the San Vicente-Barrancabermeja road. Peroniceras was also en-
countered with the lower part of the Marginulina curvisepta zonule assemblage in
the Cesar Valley. This leaves only a portion of the Galembo member open for a
possible Santonian age. Cushman and Hedberg (1941) mention evidence for a
gap in the section at the top of the La Luna in Zulia, Venezuela and in Norte de
Santander, Colombia. Also, in Venezuela and in the Sogamoso area of Colombia, a
thin conglomeratic layer is found at the top of the Galembo where the Marginulina
curvisepta zonule is missing, and the base of the overlying Umir is in direct contact
with the lower foraminiferal zones. This small gap in the sequence may account for
the failure to find any definite Santonian.
The Galembo member is correlated with the Galembo formation of the Empresa,
the Palmira of Socony (not the same as the Palmira of Pilsbry and Olsson, 1935)
the uppermost part of an unnamed shale section of Shell, the uppermost Velez of
Richmond and the Villeta of Texas, and the upper La Luna as used by Intercol.

UMIR FORMATION

Name and type section.—The type locality is the Quebrada of the same name.
3 kilometers west of Cerro Umir. The term was first used in an unpublished report
by L. G. Huntley in 1917 to designate the sequence exposed at the type locality.
However, Huntley's usage of Umir included what is now known to be the Lisama
formation, of Paleocene age. In 1925, T. A. Link redefined the Umir, confining it to
the Cretaceous portion of that section. It is in this sense that the name is used in
this paper. To date no definite type section has been established, but the formation
crops out over a considerable area along the eastern boundary of the DeMares con-
cession. According to Link, representative exposures of these shales can be seen
here in many of the small streams, such as Quebrada Carbonera.
Lithology.—The lower part of the formation consists of dark, bluish-gray to
black, thin bedded shale with thin carbonaceous and micaceous laminae. It is
characterized by thin, ferruginous layers, lenses, and small concretions. The upper
part is composed of soft, dark gray, thin-bedded shales with numerous coal seamlets,
thin beds of ironstone, and intercalations of very fine-grained sandstone to siltstone.
Because the Umir is predominantly soft, incompetent shale, it forms relatively broad
valleys.
Thickness and relationships.—In normal, complete sections, the average thick-
ness of the Umir is approximately 1,000 meters. Its relationship, at least locally,
with the underlying Galembo is disconformable.
Age and correlations.—The Campanian and lowermost Maestrichtian portions
of the Umir are of mid-neritic origin, whereas in the higher Maestrichtian the en-
vironment ranged from upper-neritic to continental. Mud flats with arenaceous
foraminifera were alternating with brackish- and fresh-water deposits under these
conditions. Based on rich collections of microfauna studied from the Colon District
of Venezuela, Cushman and Hedberg (1941), and from the Middle Magdalena and
Cesar Valleys of Colombia, Petters (195s), established the following foraminiferal
zones in ascending order—Siphogenerinoides cretacea, Siphogenerinoides bramlettei,
Ammobaculites colombianus. These well-established zones fix the age of the Umir
as Campanian-Maestrichtian. In support of this age determination Buergl and
Tobon (1954) report the Campanian ammonite Stantonoceras associated with
Siphogenerinoides cretacea Cushman, near Girardot in the Upper Magdalena Valley
of Colombia; Petters (1955) lists Maestrichtian ammonite faunas from various lo-
calities within the Siphogenerinoides bramlettei and Ammobaculites colombianus
zones. Added evidence is the occurrence of Coahuilites and Austrosphenodiscus sp. at
kilometers 77.4 on the Bucaramanga-Puerto Wilches railroad in the Ammobaculites
colombianus zone.
The Umir shale is uniformly recognized by all companies except Texas, which
extends its upper boundary to include the Lisama.

TERTIARY SYSTEM

In contrast to the marine Cretaceous, the greater part of the Tertiary sediments
was deposited in a fresh- to brackish-water environment and consists of fine to
coarse clastics which attain a maximum thickness in excess of 8,000 meters (Fig. 7).
These sediments were carried into the Magdalena Valley by swiftly flowing streams,
the coarser material being deposited around the mouths of the rivers as deltas, and
the finer material along the stretches between the mouths. Associated with these
deltas were a series of lakes, rivers, and swamps, in which fresh-water deposits were
formed. This may explain the abrupt changes in coarseness, thickness, and character
of these Tertiary beds which occur even along regional strike.

PALEOCENE

LISAMA FORMATION

Name and type section.—This formation was first defined by T. A. Link in

1925 in an unpublished report. The type locality is the Quebrada Lisama, a tribu-
tary of the Rio Sogamoso, in the northeast part of the DeMares concession. Typi-
cal exposures can be seen here, and also along the Puerto Wilches-Bucaramanga
railroad.
Lithology.—The Lisama sediments represent a transition in the type of deposi-
tion from the marine Umir to continental deposits. They consist principally of vari-
 FIG. 7.—Isopachous map of Tertiary sediments present in the Middle Magdalena Valley.

colored, red, brown, light-gray to gray, mottled shales, with interbeds of medium-
to fine-grained, gray to greenish-gray and brown, locally cross-bedded sandstone.
The sandstones are coarser grained towards the top, and contain some coal seams,
less well developed than those of the Umir. Some of the sandstone beds form ridges
but in general the unit is considered a valley former.
Thickness and relationships.—The Lisama formation ranges up to 1,225 meters
in thickness, and is conformable with the underlying Umir. The contact is grada-
tional, and is generally placed at the lowermost well-developed sandstone.
Age and correlation.—The age of the unit is Paleocene. Fossil fragments have
been collected from the base of the formation near Las Cruces on the north side of
the Rio Sogamoso, but as these are almost completely disintegrated, it has not been
possible to identify them. However, palynological studies of T. van der Hammen
(1954) and unpublished Intercol reports of R. Sarmiento reveal the presence of a
typical Paleocene pollen assemblage with Monocolpites operaculatus Van der
Hammen as the prevailing form. The Lisama formation, as the Umir, is correlated
uniformly between all the companies except Texas, which extends the Umir to
include the Lisama. This formation is not present in the Totumal area, nor to date
has it been recognized in the Casabe or Velasquez fields.

EOCENE-CHORRO GROUP

Included in this group are the La Paz and Esmeraldas formations (Fig. 6).
Except for the inclusion of the locally occurring Toro "Altered Shale," it is
equivalent to the La Paz and Esmeraldas formations as used b y the early geologists
of the Tropical Oil Company, and with the "Choro Series" of Wheeler (1935). As,
at the present time the Empresa does not recognize the Esmeraldas formation, the
C and D Zones of the La Cira-Infantas fields are correlated with the Chorro group.

LA PAZ FORMATION

Name and type section.—The name is derived from the La Paz ridge which
extends along the east side of the Magdalena Valley between the Sogamoso and
Lebrija Rivers. Usage goes back to unpublished company reports by geologists of
the Tropical Oil Company in the twenties. It appears for the first time in published
literature in Wheeler's report on the "Tertiary Stratigraphy of the Middle Mag-
dalena Valley" in 1935. La Paz sediments are typically exposed in the Lebrija
Gorge along the Puerto Wilches-Bucaramanga railroad.
Lithology.—The unit consists of massive, cross-bedded, light gray, conglomeratic
sandstones. Scattered interbeds of gray siltstones and shale occur in the lower two-
thirds of the formation. At the very base of the formation on the Rio Sogamoso is a
hard, dense, gray to light grayish blue, highly jointed shale. Where well bedded, it is
generally a very light gray, or pure white, and is highly suggestive of a tuff. How-
ever, no glass has ever been found in the rock. It was first described by T. A. Link
in an unpublished report under the term "Altered Shale," and was later named the
Toro formation in a private report by W. W. Waring in 1931. The La Paz forma-
tion is a marked ridge former.
Thickness and relationships.—At the type section the unit is approximately
1,000 meters thick but it varies considerably in thickness over the area. Its rela-
tionship with the underlying Lisama is marked by a regional, well defined un-
conformity.
Age and correlation.—As no fossils have been found in the La Paz, its age assign-
ment of upper Eocene is still problematic, and has been based on the position of the
formation in the section. It is of continental origin. As used here, the La Paz forma-
tion correlates with the entire Toro and lower part of the La Paz as used by the
Empresa and Shell; with the lower two thirds of the La Paz as used by Socony
and Richmond; and with the bottom half of the Avechucos of Texas. It does not
exist in the Totumal area.
ESMERALDAS FORMATION

Name and type section.—This formation was probably first named by Gulf Oil
Company geologists from the excellent exposures in the Rio Sogamoso at the hamlet
of La Esmeralda, and was later published by Wheeler (1935).
Lithology.—The formation consists of hard, thin-bedded to laminated, fine-
grained, micaceous, light gray to greenish sandstones and siltstones interbedded with
dark gray shales locally mottled brown, red, and purple, with scattered lignite
seamlets. In general it forms very low topography.
Thickness and relationships.—The unit is about 1,200 meters thick at the type
section. The basal contact with the La Paz is conformable and transitional, and is
generally taken at the change from the massive La Paz sedimentation to the thin-
bedded sands and silts of the Esmeraldas.
Age and correlation.—Fresh-water mollusks of the Los Corros fossil horizon,
which occurs locally at the top of the Esmeraldas, have been assigned an upper
Eocene age by Pilsbry and Olsson (1935). Recent studies of pollen (unpublished
report by R. Sarmiento) from the Esmeraldas permit a fair correlation with pollen
from the lower Carbonera formation (below the Hannatoma fauna level) of the
Cucuta-Tachira area. As the Hannatoma fauna has been placed in the upper
Eocene by Stainforth, et al. (1949) this points to an upper Eocene age for the
Esmeraldas formation. It correlates with the upper two thirds of the La Paz as
used by the Empresa and Shell; with the L a Esmeralda of Socony; the Esmeraldas
of Richmond, and the upper half of the Avechucos of Texas. It is not present in
the Totumal area.
OLIGOCENE-CHUSPAS GROUP

Geologists of the Atlantic Refining Company established the term Chuspas

formation for those sediments lying above the Los Corros fossil horizon and below
the coarse clastics of the Real. Due to the presence of the Mugrosa fossil horizon
in the DeMares area, Wheeler (1935) split this unit into the Mugrosa and Colorado
formations. Even though this breakdown is not everywhere possible, the Chuspas
group in this text includes the Mugrosa and Colorado formations as established by
Wheeler.
MUGROSA FORMATION

Name and type section.—The name was first used by A. K . McGill and included
all sediments between the top of the Toro and the top of the Mugrosa fossil horizon.
Later Waring redefined it to apply to the section between the top of the Los Corros
and the top of the Mugrosa fossil horizons (Fig. 6). The name is derived from the
Quebrada Mugrosa where typical exposures of the formation occur.
Lithology.—At La Cira-Infantas the lower half of the formation is composed
of dull blue and brown, massive, mottled shales broken by occasional relatively
thin beds of fine-grained sandstone and light green siltstone. The upper half of the
unit consists of gray, fine to coarse grained, locally pebbly sandstones interbedded
with minor amounts of mottled shales. Eastward from La Cira-Infantas there is an
increase in the proportion of sand to shale in the lower part of the section, whereas
a reverse relationship exists in the upper part. The Mugrosa fossil horizon varies in
lithology from olive green or maroon to black; is brittle, and very well bedded.
Glauconite occurs sparingly in the section. The topography expressed by these beds
is generally of low relief.
Thickness and relationships.—The Mugrosa formation increases in thickness
progressively eastward from 800 meters at La Cira-Infantas to as much as 2,000
meters in the foothills 25 kilometers eastward. Regionally the Mugrosa formation
lies unconformably upon the Esmeraldas, although, due to somewhat similar
lithology, in local areas this unconformity may be obscure.
Age and correlation.—Pilsbry and Olsson (1935) assigned a middle Oligocene
age to the Mugrosa fossil horizon which occurs locally at the top of this formation.
However, Stirton (1953) described fishes, reptiles, and a mammal tooth of the sub-
family, Albertogaudryinae from the DeMares concession and assigned to these a
late Eocene age. The Mugrosa formation correlates with the Mugrosa (B-Zone) of
the Empresa, the lower half of the Chuspas as used by Socony and Richmond, the
Mugrosa and lower half of the Colorado as used by Shell at Casabe, and the lower
half of the Tune of Texas. The formation is not present in the Totumal area.

COLORADO FORMATION

Name and type section.—The name Colorado was used originally by A. K .

McGill in 1929, and later published by Wheeler (1935). An excellent section of
these sediments is exposed in the Rio Colorado, and includes all beds between the
top of the Mugrosa and the top of the La Cira fossil horizons.
Lithology.—This formation consists of tough, massive, light-gray, purple, and
red splotched shales with sandstone interbeds of varying thicknesses. The sand-
stones are generally massive, fine to coarse grained, white, gray, and buff in color,
and are generally cross bedded. This unit differs from the underlying Mugrosa in
that the shales are iron stained with brighter hues of red, and the sandstones are
markedly coarser and more conglomeratic. The La Cira fossil horizon at the top of
the formation is a 100-meter succession of dull gray to black, well-bedded, car-
bonaceous shale, with interbedded light green, medium-grained sandstones a few
feet thick. These beds rarely form ridges, although a pebbly sandstone horizon in
the upper part of the formation stands up well in the DeMares area.
Thickness and relationships.—The Colorado formation is 1,250 meters thick at
the type section, 1,000 meters at the La Cira-Infantas field, and increases to approxi-
mately 2,500 meters along the foothills of the Eastern Cordillera. The Colorado
formation rests conformably upon the underlying Mugrosa, and the contact is
locally marked by the top of the Mugrosa fossil horizon. Based upon lithology this
contact is generally placed where the darker shales of the Mugrosa give way to
mottled and bright red shales.
Age and correlation.—The La Cira fossil horizon, a mollusk assemblage, was
described by Pilsbry and Olsson (1935) and assigned an upper Oligocene to lower
Miocene age. The Colorado formation is correlative with the Colorado (A-Zone) of
the Empresa; the upper half of the Chuspas of Socony and Richmond; with the
main part of the Colorado plus the La Cira fossil horizon of Wheeler as used by
Shell at Casabe, and with the upper half of the Tune of Texas. It is non-existent in
the Totumal area.

MIOCENE

REAL GROUP

Name and type section.—Wheeler (1935) published a description of this group

as the "Real Series." The name comes from the exposures of these beds at the Bandera
Real, a triangulation station just north of the Rio Opon and 2 kilometers west of the
Quebrada Real.
Lithology.—In the Opon River area the formation consists of a 30-meter con-
glomerate at the base, composed of brown and black chert, clay ironstone, coal
fragments and quartz pebbles, overlain by 500 meters of massive, cross-bedded,
pebbly sandstone, with interbeds of gray, blue, and mottled shales. Above these sand-
stones are 1,300 meters of gray and red mottled shales with thin beds of gray, cross-
bedded, ripple-marked sandstone. Continuing up the section, another 1,100 meters of
sandstones are encountered containing fewer coal fragments than the lower sandstone.
Silicified and carbonized tree trunks are common. Successively overlying these sand-
stones are 500 meters of gray, red, blue, purple, and brown splotched shales with
thin interbeds of white, friable sandstones. The topmost part of the formation con-
sists of blue and greenish-blue, cross-bedded, commonly pebbly and conglomeratic
sandstone with abundant carbonized wood and leaves. Some of the sandstones of
this formation are quite distinctive due to large amounts of hornblende and augite.
In the southern part of the valley the Real generally forms ridges, but to the north
it appears to be less indurated and erodes more readily.
Thickness and relationships.—Due to foresetting and to the cross-bedded nature
of these sediments it is difficult to establish their true thickness. Apparent thickness,
however, ranges up to 3,600 meters. Regionally, a well-developed unconformity
exists between the Real group and the Colorado formation, and in most places the
contact is relatively sharp and well defined. In subsurface correlation an abrupt
change from fresh to salt water generally marks the base of the Real, though not
in the Casabe or Cantagallo fields.
Age and correlation.—Fossil leaves examined by E. W. Berry indicate an upper
Miocene age for part of the Real. Recent studies by Stirton in the Upper Magdalena
Valley indicate that the basal part of this unit contains upper Oligocene verte-
brates, whereas the middle to upper part contains vertebrates of late Miocene age.
A horizon of small gastropods and other shells found ill the Velasquez No. 4 well
was reported by Olsson as being younger than the La Cira fossils, and of Miocene
age.
The Real group correlates with the Real of the Empresa and Intercol; with the
Santa Elena and Puerto Santos of Socony; the Puerto Santos of Richmond; the
Zorro of Texas, and the Real plus the part of the La Cira above Wheeler's La Cira
fossil horizon as used by Shell at Casabe.
 PLIOCENE TO RECENT

MESA CROUP

Name and type section.—For the purposes of this paper all sediments above
the upper Miocene have been grouped together. The name Mesa formation was
used by Weiske (1926) and Butler (1942) based on the morphology of the beds
of the lower part of this group in the Honda area, where they form table-top hills.
Lithology.—The base of the unit consists of about 350 meters of rather well-
bedded sands and andesitic tuffs which contain beds of coarse-grained sandstone,
grits, agglomerates, clay, silts, conglomerates, and pyroclastics. In the pyroclastic
material are fragments of andesite, dacite, pumice, and ash, with small quartz frag-
ments and flakes of phyllite. This part of the unit has been considered Pliocene by
Wheeler (1935). The upper portion of the Mesa group is composed of gravels,
boulders, sandstones, and some interbedded silts, representing fan and stream
deposits.
Thickness and relationships.—These sediments range up to 575 meters in thick-
ness, and rest unconformably upon the Real.
Age and correlation.—The lowermost part of the unit may possibly be Pliocene,
with the remainder being Pleistocene to Recent. It correlates with the Sabaneta of
Socony; the Mesa and Magdalena as used by Intercol and Shell; the Los Angeles of
Richmond; and the Diamante of Texas.

GEOLOGIC HISTORY

It is not simple to set forth a brief history of sedimentation in the Middle

Magdalena Valley as a separate entity, as it is but a small western part of a much
larger deposition area, at least during Cretaceous time (Fig. 2). During the earlier
phases of the Cretaceous Period, there were possibly several positive elements which
contributed large quantities of coarse clastics of this new depositional cycle—the
Guiana shield, parts of the Central Range, and source areas somewhere in the pres-
ent-day Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea. The earliest Cretaceous seas probably
came from a southerly direction, and in the Middle Magdalena Valley deposited
the coarse clastics and conglomerates of the Tambor formation. This unit represents
the initial phase of the Cretaceous cycle of deposition and transgresses time from
south to north. More widespread deposition in epeiric seas followed and lasted to the
Senonian. From Coniacian onward, in the present day Upper Magdalena Valley a
gradual upsurge of basement started and subsequently developed into an elongated,
regional feature, which affected sedimentation. Farther north, en echelon to this
feature, the DeMares-Narino high may have exerted a similar, but not necessarily
contemporaneous influence on the deposition taking place along this trend (Fig. 8).
The end of the Cretaceous saw a general shallowing of the Umir seas and then the
deposition of the Paleocene Lisama siltstones, thin coals, and continental beds. At
the end of the Paleocene epoch uplift was renewed, and possibly early in the Eocene,
widespread erosion took place along the crest of these positive trends and elsewhere
in Colombia.
The Tertiary Period was characterized for the most part by renewed uplifts and
general diastrophism. As a result of these prevailing conditions, the Tertiary sedi-
ments thus derived are generally of continental origin and only during the Oligocene
FIG. 8.—Bouguer gravity contour map of the Middle Magdalena Valley.
were there intermittent, but wide-spread marine invasions. The initial Tertiary
sediments were deposited in broad, previously established Cretaceous lows, and they
transgressed the Cretaceous flexures already formed. Such conditions were dominant
during the Eocene La Paz time. The most widespread Tertiary transgression in
Colombia occurred during the Oligocene epoch, during which the Middle Magdalena
Valley area was flooded. The sediments laid down in these waters are known as
the Mugrosa and Colorado, but, except for their connate water, they are essentially
of continental facies. This group rests on sediments as old as Giron in outcrop areas
to the northeast of DeMares, and crystalline basement west of Velasquez.
Thus, there were uplifts at the end of the Paleocene (probably confined to the
western region or hinge line of the Cretaceous geosyncline), at the end of the
Eocene, close of Oligocene, the middle Miocene and the Pliocene. The results of
this mountain-building activity were reflected in the sediments which were laid
down after those orogenies, the rocks being characterized by bright red, variegated
clays, and numerous conglomeratic horizons composed for the most part of pebbles
and cobbles of Cretaceous origin derived from positive elements within the basin
area. This lithology is particularly applicable to the Oligocene group (Colorado and
Mugrosa), whereas the Miocene, in contrast, is characterized by conglomeratic sands
consisting largely of igneous-derived material to such an extent that the base of the
Real group is commonly placed at the disappearance of hornblende.

STRUCTURE

The Middle Magdalena Valley has frequently been described as a graben, but
actually it conforms more to the "half-graben" type as described by L. G. Weeks
(1952), particularly so from El Banco to the Velasquez area (Figs. 3 and 9). This

FIG. 9.—Generalized geologic cross sections of the Middle Magdalena Valley. A-A' (Intercol),
B-B' (Socony-Shell), C-C' (Shell-Empresa), D-D' (Texas), E-E' (Richmond). Lines of sec-
tions are shown in Fig. 3.
depression may have had its beginning in the orogeny at the end of the Cretaceous,
but it did not take its present configuration until the end of the Miocene, as is indi-
cated by the folding and faulting in the Real group which blankets and transgresses
the entire area. It is thought that the Cretaceous orogeny created only the first
regional folds and that the crustal adjustments that followed were for the most part
tensional. Renewed tectonic movements at the end of the Miocene resulted in the
thrust faulting and the uplift of the Eastern Andes. Most of the normal faulting is
attendant to these compressive stresses. Regional studies seem to indicate that the
majority of the thrust faults parallel the Eastern Andean foothills and the greatest
number of the tensional faults are northeast-southwest. These are the salient struc-
tural characteristics of the valley. They are closely related, of course, to the geo-
logical history described in the preceding pages.

PART I I — G E O L O G Y OF THE O I L FIELDS

INTRODUCTION

The following descriptions of the various oil fields have been condensed from
more extensive texts written by the representatives of the several companies.

BUTURAMA FIELD4

The Buturama field is located about fifteen kilometers N. 45 ° W. of the Totumal

field (Fig. 10). It was discovered in May 1953 when Buturama No. 1 flowed 850
barrels per day of 350- 37 0 A.P.I.-gravity oil from the "Basal Limestone" group
through a 2-inch line. The structure was indicated by a positive gravity anomaly,
later confirmed and further delineated by reflection seismograph surveys as dis-
cussed for the Totumal field. Three producing wells have been drilled on the
Buturama feature proper (Fig. 11).
Physiography, areal geology, and surface indications of oil and gas are discussed
under the Totumal field.
Stratigraphy.—The field petroleum reservoir is confined to the "Basal Lime-
stone" group (Fig. 12). On the basis of electric-log characteristics, it has been found
inconvenient to attempt to break the "Basal Limestone" group into its component
formations, the Tablazo limestone, Paja, and Rosa Blanca formations, which are
quite distinct in other parts of the Middle Magdalena Valley. In the Buturama field,
the "Basal Limestone" group consists of limestone, light to medium gray, hard, with
crystalline calcite veinlets and occasional calcite-filled vugs, interbedded with numer-
ous, medium to thin shales.
Structure.—The structure (Fig. 11) is a small anticline, trending N. 55 0 E.,
bounded on the northwest by a normal fault trending N. 50° E., downthrown to
the west.
Reservoirs and reservoir fluids.—Although occasional small zones of vugular
porosity have been encountered in the "Basal Limestone" group in the area, the
field is considered essentially a fractured-limestone reservoir. Fractures are vertical
or high angle, and may be partially filled with calcite. Few open fractures are over

4 B y L. G. Morales and D . J. Podesta, International Petroleum (Colombia) Ltd.

 FIG. IO.—Iso-gravity contour map of Tertiary oils in the Middle Magdalena Valley.

3 mm wide. No effective inter-angular or inter-crystalline porosity has been recog-

nized, and to date no definite trend or pattern of fracture zones has been established.
In general, crudes from the Buturama field are of approximately 37 0 A.P.I,
gravity, are paraffinic, and have a low sulfur content of approximately 0.5 per cent.
Fractions obtained by simple atmospheric distillation have the following character-
istics.
 4000 F. B. P. Naphthas (Approximately 24 per cent yield)
The octane number of the naphtha fraction is approximately 49 by the motor method,
characteristic of paraffinic naphthas.
Kerosene (Approximately 10 per cent yield)
A good quality kerosene fraction is obtainable from this crude.
Diesel Fuel Oil (Approximately 28 per cent yield)

group of the Buturama field.

The diesel fuel oil fraction is of high quality, having a high diesel index, low sulfur con-
tent, and a moderately low pour point of approximately o°F.
Residual Fuel Oil (Approximately 38 per cent yield)
The residual fuel has a fairly high pour point of about 40°F. The sulfur content is low,
on the order of 1 per cent. The fuel oil as represented by the above yield has a viscosity of
approximately 70 seconds (Saybolt Furol) at I22°F. This would indicate that it contains a
fairly high gas-oil content.
The above information is based on the results of analyses made at the Barranca refinery.
No information is available on the yield quality of lubricating oil, asphalt fraction, or gasoline.

Production.—As the concession has not been contracted for exploitation, no pro-
duction figures are available to date.

TOTUMAL FIELD5

The Totumal field is located in the Departamento del Magdalena, about 400
kilometers north of Bogota (Fig. 10).
" B y L. G. Morales and D. J. Podesta, International Petroleum (Colombia) Ltd.
 FIG. 12.—Structural cross section of the Buturama field showing the oil-producing section and
oil-water contact. See Fig. 10 for locations of wells.

The field was discovered in 1951 when Totumal No. 1 flowed 550 barrels of
24.8° A.P.I.-gravity oil from the La Luna formation in twelve hours through a
^2-inch choke.
Four wells had been drilled in the area prior to Totumal No. 1. Two of these
bottomed in Real, one in Umir and one in La Luna. Heavy tar was encountered in
the Umir well. The Totumal feature first showed as a positive gravity anomaly
from a survey made in 1943-44. Reconnaissance and semi-detailed geological sur-
veys of the area were made in 1945-47. Reflection seismic surveys were run in the
area during parts of 1943, 1946, 1947, 1948, and 1949, for a total of 17 party
months. Since the discovery of Totumal, Intercol has continued exploration in the
general area.
A total of six wells has been drilled in the Totumal field (Fig. 13), of which
four are producers and two are suspended for further testing.
Surface features.—Most of the area is geologically blind, being covered by
dense underbrush and Recent river gravels. Plio-Pleistocene sands and gravels
finger out from the Cretaceous foothills, with erosion locally stripping local areas
to uncover distorted Real sediments just west of the surface trace of the main
Eastern Cordillera foothill thrust fault (Fig. 3). Overthrust from the east, this fault
brings beds of upper Cretaceous (Umir) to Jura-Triassic (Giron) age in contact
with Miocene sediments (Real). Just east of the fault practically the entire Creta-
ceous section is exposed, overturned at about 85° to the east. Lying unconformably
under the Cretaceous are Jura-Triassic (Giron) red beds of siltstones and shale
with andesite porphyry intrusions. The Jura-Triassic sediments lie upon a thick
sequence of highly fractured and weathered gray quartzites which in turn rest
upon the metamorphic and igneous core of the Eastern Andes.
No surface indications of gas are known in the area. Two oil seeps occur in the
Tertiary about 10 kilometers east of the Totumal field. The largest of these has
oozed through Mesa sediments and is probably associated with the foothill thrust
fault. There are several other small seeps in this area east of the surface trace of
this same fault in the La Luna formation.
The La Luna formation, the Salto limestone, limestone beds in the Simiti shale,
the Tablazo limestone, and the Paja formation all have a moderate to strong
petroliferous odor from freshly broken surfaces. The Rosa Blanca formation oc-
casionally exhibits a slight petroliferous odor.
Stratigraphy.—The field petroleum reservoir is the La Luna formation and the
Salto limestone. The La Luna formation is very calcareous shale, dark-gray to black,
medium hard, thin bedded, containing numerous ovoid, ammonite-bearing, siliceous
limestone concretions up to 8 meters in longest diameter. These shales are inter-
bedded with very argillaceous limestones, medium thick, hard, dense, very dark
gray on fresh surface, weathering to a light gray. Some thin "cherty" beds composed
of radiolarian tests in a calcareous matrix have been noted. There is a marked
petroliferous odor throughout the section, with some tarry oil on bedding and frac-
ture planes. The concretions commonly carry light green to heavy black oil in vugs
and in the septal chambers of ammonites. The Salto limestone is argillaceous, dark
gray when fresh, weathering to light gray to reddish gray, dense, hard, with numer-
ous thin shale interbeds, black, calcareous, thinly plated, medium soft, containing
some ovoid limestone concretions. A strong petroliferous odor is present also in this
part of the section.
Structure.—The Totumal structure (Fig. 13) is a small faulted anticline trend-
ing N. 30° E. The apex of the structure is essentially a horst (Fig. 14) with the
bounding faults being normal and steeply dipping.
 FIG. 13.—Reflection seismograph contour map on the top of the L a Luna formation
of the Totumal field.

Reservoirs and reservoir fluids.—Little can be said about the reservoirs of this
field. Production is from fractures in the La Luna formation. The effective fracturing
is typically joint type, being high angle, with considerable calcite or tar filling.
Open fractures range in width ordinarily from fractions of a millimeter through
3 mm, and are generally lined with calcite or solid hydrocarbons. A large number
of irregular, vertical, stylolite-type fractures filled with shale or calcite are present
throughout the section. T o date no definite trend or pattern of fracture zones has
been established.
 TO-6 TO - I TO - 4 TO - 2

FIG. 14.—Structural cross section of the Totumal field showing the oil-producing section.
See Fig. 13 for location of wells.

In general, crude from the Totumal field is of approximately 25 0 A.P.I, gravity,

is paraffinic, and has a relatively high sulfur content of the order of 1.8 per cent.
Salt content is about 150 lbs./i,ooo bbls. Fractions obtained by simple atmospheric
distillation have the following characteristics.
400° F.E.P. Naphthas (Approximately 12 per cent yield)
The octane number of the naphthas of approximately 400°F. end point is approximately
42 by the motor method, characteristics of paraffin naphthas.
Kerosene (Approximately 7 per cent yield)
A fairly good quality kerosene fraction is obtained.
 Diesel Fuel Oil (Approximately 15 per cent yield)
The diesel fuel oil fraction has a high diesel index, a fairly high pour point, and a moder-
ately high sulfur content. T h e diesel fraction from the standpoint of ignition and combustion is
of high quality.
Residual Fuel Oil (Approximately 66 per cent)
The residual fuel has a high pour point of about 6s°F. and sulfur content of about 2.5 per
cent. In general, the quality of residual fuel obtainable from the Totumal crude would be much
inferior to that consumed in Colombia at the present time.
The above information is based on analyses made at the Barranca refinery. N o informa-
tion is available on the yield or quality of lubricating oil, asphalt fraction, or gasoline.

Production.—As the concession has not been contracted for exploitation, no

production figures are available to date.

CANTAGALLO FIELD6
The Cantagallo field is located about 20 miles north of the Casabe field (Fig.
10). It was discovered in 1943 when Cantagallo No. 2 was successfully completed in
the Eocene "Cantagallo Sands," and produced 193 barrels per day on a inch
choke. The location was based on reflection seismograph data.
The Cantagallo concession was first leased by the Compania de Petroleos del
Valle del Magdalena, a subsidiary of the Socony-Vacuum Oil Company of Colombia.
After carrying out the initial exploration work and drilling the first 12 wells, the
Socony-Vacuum, in 1951, sold the concession to the Concesionaria de Petroleo
Shell-Condor.
Surface mapping was started on the concession in 1936, gravity and seismic
surveys were made in 1940, and further seismic work was carried out in 1942. These
later geophysical surveys showed the presence of a major fault, downthrown to the
east, with a small half-dome structure in the Cretaceous beds on the downthrown
side. Cantagallo No. 1, located on the west side of the fault, was completed in 1941
as a gas well, producing about 250,000 cubic feet per day. From 1943 until 1949,
10 wells were drilled. After the concession was acquired by the Shell-Condor 7 more
wells were drilled between 1952 and 1954.
Surface features.—Northwest of the Cantagallo field a good surface section
is exposed. This shows all sedimentary rocks dipping gently eastward, with a pro-
gressive overlap southward, of young Tertiary sediments over Cretaceous, Giron,
and onto crystalline basement. Older Tertiary sediments\are not exposed in the
concession area.
Stratigraphy.—Production in the Cantagallo field is confined to the "Cantagallo
Sands" of Eocene age (Fig. 15). These consist of soft to hard, fine to coarse sand-
stones, light gray, sandy claystones, and gray and brown shales, with some black,
carbonaceous shale and coaly material, etc.
Structure.—Cantagallo is an eastward dipping monoclinal structure bounded
on the northwest by a major fault trending N. 33 0 E. (Figs. 16 and 17). Northern
closure is produced by the angle between this fault and the strike of the beds.
Closure to the south is uncertain, but is possibly due to faulting. Little is known
about the structure of the Cretaceous under the Cantagallo field, except according
to seismic evidence there exists a half-dome-shaped Cretaceous high against the
fault.
a B y M . H. S. Barker and D. J. O'Donoghue, Shell-Condor.
 Reservoirs and reservoir fluids.—Only one group of sands is exploited in the
Cantagallo field. These sands probably correlate with the Toro of Casabe of Eocene
age and are known as the "Cantagallo Sands." They are not the lithic equivalent

A B

Fic. 15.—A correlation section of typical electric logs of the Cantagallo field. Line of
section is A-B, Fig. 16.

of the Toro "Altered Shale" exposed on the Rio Sogamoso. They have a total thick-
ness of from 250-1,650 feet, with a total productive area of about 410 acres.
The crude produced from Cantagallo is naphthenic with a gravity of approxi-
mately 20.70 A.P.I. The average analysis of the crude is 6.9 per cent gasoline,
5.6 per cent gas oil, and 87.5 per cent fuel oil.
Production.—Up to July 31, 1954 Cantagallo field had produced 3,101,152
barrels of oil.

CASABE FIELD7

The Casabe field is situated in the eastern part of the Yondo concession of the
Concesionaria de Petroleo Shell-Condor, about 15 miles west, and a little north
of DeMares (Fig. 10). It was discovered in 1941 when Casabe No. 1 was success-

' By M. H. S. Barker and D. J. O'Donoghue, Shell-Condor.

 0 1 2 Kms.

FIG. 16.—Structural contour map on the top of the Cantagallo sands, Cantagallo field, A-B and
C D are lines of sections in Figs. 15 and 17, respectively.

fully completed with an initial rate of 430 barrels per day on air lift. The location
was based on seismic data.
The Yondo concession had always been considered attractive due to its proximity
to the DeMares concession, the only established source of production in the Mag-
 FIG. 17.—Structural cross section of the Cantagallo field showing the oil accumulation and
oil-water contact. Line of section is C-D, Fig. 16.

dalena Valley at the time. Considerable exploration difficulties were encountered in

the beginning. The swampy nature of the greater part of the area rendered the
prospects of obtaining information on surface geology very slight, and a study of
aerial photographs failed to yield any useful geological information. In 1937 a
reconnaissance gravity survey indicated a flank rising westward and a broad nose
plunging eastward with some closure to the west, due partly to faulting and partly to
reversal of dip. A preliminary seismic survey was made in 1938, but with poor and
inconclusive results. A new seismic survey was made in 1939 and 1940. This con-
firmed the gravity anomaly and defined the position of the boundary fault. Based
on this seismic evidence, Casabe No. 1 was located slightly down dip from the apex
of the structure on the east side of the fault.
Since the discovery of Casabe No. 1, a total of 394 wells has been drilled, of
which 387 are producers.
Surface features.—Igneous and metamorphic basement rocks and Giron sedi-
ments form the Central Cordillera, whose eastern limit is some 30 kilometers north-
west of the Casabe field. The intervening region is hilly and wooded, crossed by a
number of rivers, and containing many swamp areas. Outcropping formations range
from Oligocene to Recent. Irregularly bedded clays and sands of the Mesa group
are exposed in the hills near Casabe, and westward toward the Central Cordillera
progressively older Tertiary strata crop out. The concession proper is blanketed
by Real to Recent sediments which effectively conceal the structure. There are no
surface indications of oil or gas in the Casabe area.
Stratigraphy.—Production in the Casabe field is confined to the Colorado and
Mugrosa formations of the Chuspas group (Oligocene?), and the La Paz formation
of the Chorro (Eocene?) group (Figs. 18 and 19). The Eocene includes in ascend-
ing order (Fig. 20) Toro, a claystone zone, the C-sands, and a claystone zone.
The Toro consists of whitish and light green, red, and violet mottled claystones,
and poorly sorted, fine to coarse kaolinitic sandstones, and fine-grained calcareous
sandstones. The C-sands are fine to coarse and pebbly. The claystones are red,
purple, mottled, and are commonly silty to sandy to pebbly. In general, the Eocene
contains considerable pyrite and siderite; thicknesses vary from 600 to 1,200 feet.
The Mugrosa formation is composed of sands and interbedded claystones. The
sandstones grade from fine to medium in the upper part to pebbly in the lower
part, and the claystones show dull, dark red, and purple mottling and are fre-
quently silty or sandy. The Colorado formation also consists of interbedded sand-
stones and mottled claystones. The lowermost claystones are gray or green in color
with dark red and purple mottling. The A 2 sands are compact, fine to medium
grained, with lenses and layers of coarser material. Generally, they have a low
clay and silt content, and locally are arkosic and poorly sorted. The uppermost
claystones are brightly mottled, with typical red, light purple, and violet colors,
and are less indurated than the lower claystones. The overlying A x sands are mostly
fine grained, well sorted, and friable, with some poorly sorted, coarse to granular,
argillaceous layers. Calcareous stringers are common, with scarce carbonaceous
matter noted.
Structure.—The Casabe structure has no surface expression whatsoever unless
the entrenched curve of the Magdalena around Casabe is to be explained on a
purely structural basis. As known from the subsurface, however, the structure is of
appreciable size, trends north-northeast, has a well-defined east flank and south
plunge, and is bounded on its west side by a north-northeast-trending fault zone
against which production is limited on that side. The structure also appears to
plunge northward into the area of the Galan field of the Empresa. A truly distinctive
west flank can hardly be said to exist east of this boundary fault zone, though
immediately west of the zone some evidence for a west flank has been obtained. The
axis of the structure trends slightly oblique to the boundary fault, being closer in

FIG. 18.—Structural cross section of the Casabe field showing the oil accumulation, and
gas-oil and oil-water contacts. Line of section is C-D, Fig. 21.

the north than in the south. The higher part of the Casabe structure is strongly
affected by a system of shallow cross faulting. Two separate trends exist with
strikes of approximately N. 55° E. and S. 70° E. The faults dip at approximately
6o°, with the majority downthrown to the north and west. The throw of the faults
generally diminishes with depth and with distance from the western boundary
fault (Fig. 21).
Little is known about the structure of the Cretaceous, as only one well has
drilled the complete Cretaceous section. Of the wells that drilled the upper part
of the Cretaceous only a few can be correlated. Thus, though the boundary fault
is believed to be an old feature, it is not known to what extent the Cretaceous east
of it was faulted prior to Tertiary deposition. It is quite possible that the Cretaceous
structure is relatively simple.
Reservoirs and reservoir fluids.—Two distinct series of sands are exploited—1.
the "Upper Sands," which belong to the Colorado formation of the Oligocene; and

f~7] u n n K o a B u a
CORRELATION SECTION OF TYPICAL ELECTRIC LOGS CASABE FIELD

FIG. 19.—A correlation section of typical electric logs of the Casabe field.
Line of section is A-B, Fig. 21.

2. the "Lower Sands," which belong to the Mugrosa formation of the Oligocene,
combined with the upper part of the Toro-La Paz formation of the Eocene. N o
deeper commercial prospects have been encountered to date in the Casabe area.
In the "Upper Sands" the depth of the producing zone is 2,150-3,300 feet in
the up-structure wells, and 3,000-3,900 feet in the down-structure wells. The total
productive area of the "Upper Sands" is about 4,250 acres. In the "Lower Sands"
the depth of the producing zone is 3,700-5,150 feet in the up-structure wells, and
4,200-5,650 feet in the down-structure wells. T h e total productive area of the
"Lower Sands" is about 1,800 acres.
In general the crude oil produced is a naphthenic base, being slightly more
aromatic in the "Lower Sands." The crude from the "Upper Sands" has a gravity
range of I 8 ° - 2 3 ° A.P.I., with the lighter oil occurring toward the top of the struc-
ture. T h e average analysis of the crude is 4.7 per cent gasoline, 13.8 per cent gas
oil, and 81.5 per cent fuel oil; however, there is a distinct variation between crudes
north and south of one of the major cross faults. For equal gravities, crudes to the
north yield more gasoline, but of a poorer quality; whereas, crudes to the south
FIG. 20.—Composite electric log of the Casabe field.
 STRUCTURAL CONTOUR M A P ON TOP OF A 2 (UPPER S A N D S )
CASABE FIELD

Fic. 21.—Structural contour map of the Casabe field on top of the "Upper Sands." A-B and
C-D are lines of sections in Figs. 19 and 18, respectively.

yield more gas oil, also with poorer ignition qualities. The crude from the "Lower
Sands" has a gravity range of i 9 ° - 2 4 ° A.P.I.
Production.—Up to July 31st, 1954, Casabe field produced a total of 82,177,770
barrels of oil of which 63,773,018 came from the "Upper Sands."
 LA CIRA-INFANTAS FIELDS8

The La Cira-Infantas fields are located in the DeMares concession about 25

kilometers east of the Casabe field (Fig. 10). The discovery well in the Infantas
field was Infantas No. 2 which was completed in the C-Zone with an initial produc-
tion of 1,000 barrels per day in 1918. T h e La Cira field was discovered in 1926 with
the drilling of well No. 58. Discovery of both fields is credited to surface geology.
The history of the DeMares concession dates back to the early days when
Colombia was under Spanish rule. In 1536 Don Gonzalo Jimenz de Quesada arrived
in the area to investigate prolific oil seeps on the present concession area. In 1905
Roberto DeMares was awarded the DeMares concession, and in 1918 he transferred
it to Benedum and Trees who formed the Tropical Oil Company. In 1920 controlling
interest in this company was sold to International Petroleum Company. On August
25> 1951, in accordance with the original agreement between the International

Petroleum Company and the Colombian Government, the DeMares concession with
all production, drilling equipment, rolling stock, and improvements, reverted to the
Colombian government. A new company, the Empresa Colombiana de Petroleos,
was organized at that time and has continued the further development and explora-
tion of the concession.
As of September 1, 1954, 1,431 wells had been drilled in the La Cira-Infantas
fields.
Surface features.—Formations cropping out over the La Cira-Infantas fields
proper are confined to the Colorado, Mugrosa, Esmeraldas, and La Paz. Surface
mapping shows the La Cira field as an elongate domal structure with Infantas
being a long, narrow, faulted anticline broken along the crest by the Infantas
fault. Oil seeps with slight indications of gas are plentiful along the surface trace of
this fault.
Stratigraphy.—Production from the La Cira-Infantas fields (Fig. 22) is from
the Colorado formation (A-Zone), Mugrosa Formation (B-Zone), and the La Paz
formation (C-Zone). At the type locality the La Paz formation consists of massive,
coarsely cross-bedded, pebbly, and arkosic sandstones with numerous conglomerate
members separated by beds of tough, gray shale. In the La Cira-Infantas fields the
lithology is markedly different. Here the C-Zone consists of gray to grayish green,
fine- to medium-grained, rarely coarse and pebbly sandstones, with interbedded
shale, predominantly gray and blue in color, although somewhat mottled with red.
The age of the Chorro group (La Paz and Esmeraldas formations) is determined
by the fossils found in the Los Corros fossil horizon occurring toward the top of
the group in outcrop section (Figs. 5 and 6). These fossils consist of brackish water
gastropods and pelecypods and appear to be of upper Eocene age. The La Paz
formation is commonly accepted to be of deltaic and lagoonal origin. The B-Zone
(Mugrosa formation) refers to that part of the section above the C-Zone (La Paz
formation) to the top of the Mugrosa fossil horizon. It consists of a thick series of
alternating fine-grained sandstones and shales. The lower part of the formation is
composed of dull blue and brown, massive, mottled shales with some thin interbeds
8 By C. E. Mohler and E. P. Dubois, Empresa Colombiana de Petroleos; from unpublished

reports of Tropical Oil Company and Empresa Colombiana de Petroleos.

 COMPOSITE ELECTRIC LOG FOR LA CIRA-INFANTAS FIELD

FIG. 22.—Composite electric log of the L a Cira-Infantas fields.

of fine-grained sandstones and light-green sandy shales. The remaining part of

the formation is gray, fine to coarse grained, somewhat pebbly sandstone, inter-
bedded with minor amounts of green and mottled shale. The Mugrosa fossil horizon
at the top of the B-Zone consists of black to maroon, locally glauconitic shale. It is
approximately 10 feet thick and a good electric-log marker. The lower 500 feet
of the A-Zone (Colorado formation) consists of shales broken by streaks of fine
grained gray sandstones. Above this, there follows 700 feet of medium to coarse,
gray sandstones, with interbedded shales which are predominantly blue to green.
Overlying these beds are 550 feet of gray and red mottled shales, with thin inter-
bedded sandstones. Succeeding this are 340 feet of "pebbly sandstones," followed
by 300 feet of bright mottled shales and coarse-grained sandstones. The La Cira
fossil horizon occurs above this zone and consists of 340 feet of dull gray to black,
well-bedded, carbonaceous shales with interbedded light-green, medium-grained,
thin sandstone beds.
Structure.—The Infantas structure (Fig. 23) is a long, narrow, north-south
trending anticline, broken along its crest by the Infantas fault—a thrust from the
east with a displacement of 800-2,000 feet, which dips approximately 6o° to the
east. South of the producing area the fault swings southwest and disappears. North-
ward it extends along the eastern flank of the La Cira structure. It presumably
passes into a northward plunging anticline which is visible in surface outcrops as
far north as the Sogamoso River. Subsurface data indicate that the structure con-
tinues to the north. The La Cira structure is essentially an elongated dome, bounded
on the east by the Infantas fault.
Both the Infantas and La Cira structures seem to be related to the structure of
the underlying Cretaceous (Fig. 24). Below the Infantas structure, the Cretaceous
beds appear to be present as a long narrow, anticline, the crest of which has been
removed by erosion. Below the La Cira structure, the attitude of the Cretaceous
beds seems similarly to represent an elongated dome, the crest of which has also
been removed by erosion. Tertiary deposition apparently occurred over the top of
both these structures, followed by subsequent rejuvenation and later erosion to give
them their present form. The latter movement has given rise to numerous secondary
faults which in general are believed to be normal tensional faults attendant to the
Infantas thrust fault.
Reservoirs and reservoir fluids.—As development subsequent to the naming of
the fields proved them to be connected, they will be discussed together. Production
comes from loosely consolidated Tertiary sands of a highly faulted asymmetrical
anticline (Fig. 25). The net oil-sand thickness approaches a maximum of approxi-
mately 500 feet on the crest of the La Cira structure and averages approximately
250 feet for the two fields. The productive sands are separated into three general
groups, designated A-, B-, and C-Zones. The sands are fine to medium grained, and
the few analyses available indicate an average porosity of approximately 25 per
cent with permeability ranging from 2 to 1,500 millidarcies and connate water
saturations averaging 20-39 P e r cent. The extreme lenticularity of the sands makes
correlation difficult, but it has been possible to achieve fair correlation between
sand bodies (but not individual sand members) within the C-Zone.
Numerous separate reservoirs have been created in each zone by faulting. Some
of these reservoirs are acted upon by modified edgewater drives and others have been
produced almost solely by fluid expansion. The Infantas C-Zone and sectors of the
La Cira C-Zone have been subjected to crestal gas injection since 1930. The effects
of this program are not conclusive, but it is believed that it has increased recoveries
to some extent. Flattened production decline curves for some of the individual zones
 i'r

II

Abandoned - dry hole ^

Oil Producer •

CONTOUR INTERVAL.200

FIG. 23.—Structural contour map on top of the C - Z o n e of the L a Cira-Infantas fields.

A-A' and B-B' show lines of cross sections in Fig. 25.

indicate that some reservoirs are receiving benefits from the effects of gravity
drainage. The two fields encompass a proven productive surface area of approxi-
mately 19,300 acres.
The crude from the La Cira-Infantas is dark brown, asphaltic oil, with gravity
ranging from 21.4 0 to 27.9 0 A.P.I. The oil is believed to have been saturated at
 JL
nr

j U j Umir S h o l e

| Go | Golembo Member
Lo Luna
| pu | P u j o m o n a Member
Formolton
| 5 | Solodo Member

| S o ? | Solto Limestone

| 5s | Simifi Shole

| TIs [ Toblozo Limestone

| Pa | Paja Shole

| RB ] RosoBlonco Formation

| G-T | Giron-Tambor

5 KILOWETE RS

FIG. 24.—Pre-Tertiary geologic map of the L a Cira-Infantas fields.

the original reservoir condition with original dissolved gas-oil ratios on the order
of 200 cubic feet per barrel. Present net gas-oil ratios average 122-1,486 cubic feet
per barrel. The characteristics of the produced gas, water, and oil are presented in
Table I (pp. 688-689) • ^ t>e noted that the viscosity of the crude produced from
the La Cira reservoirs is approximately twice that of the Infantas crude. It has been
found that the A.P.I, gravity of the C-Zone oil tends to increase toward the crest of
the structure, and this is thought to be due primarily to the effect of gas injection.
Production.—Production to September 1, 1954 totaled 448,595,804 barrels of
oil (Fig. 26).

v e l a s q u e z f i e l d 9

The Velasquez field is the southernmost oil field in the Middle Magdalena Valley,
about 150 kilometers southwest of the La Cira-lnfantas field and 550 kilometers
from the Caribbean coast. It is located largely in the Guaguaqui Fee property which
was purchased by the Texas Petroleum Company with subsoil rights in 1929 (Fig.
10). The field was discovered by the first wildcat well drilled on the property,
Velasquez No. 1, which was completed as a producer in 1946. The location was based
on a reflection seismograph survey.
The Guaguaqui property was acquired as a result of geological reconnaissance
done in 1928 in the foothill zone of the Eastern Andes, east of the property. Here
Cretaceous shales as possible source rocks and a thick series of locally oil- and tar-
saturated Tertiary sandstones with good oil reservoir properties were found. A thick
layer of Quaternary and young Tertiary sediments blanket the area and make surface
geological investigation impracticable, hence, extensive geophysical surveys (torsion
balance, gravity, and seismic) have been made at intervals since 1930.
A total of seventy-one wells has been drilled in the field, of which five were
mechanical failures, and eleven were dry holes, but the field is by no means drilled
up. The trend of proven acreage is northwest-southeast, and at the present time
is over 10 kilometers long and about 1.5 kilometers wide (Fig. 27). Northern and
southern limits of the field are not yet defined.
Surface features.—The surface beds are Quaternary and young Tertiary sedi-
ments which are essentially horizontal and disconformably overlie the oil-producing
horizons, hence no surface expression of the Velasquez structure has been found.
This is also partly due to the dense jungle and swampy surface conditions, and to
the fact that even the subsurface structural conditions are not strongly developed.
No surface indications of oil or gas are known in the Velasquez field. Oil- and tar-
saturated sandstones of Tertiary age were mapped in the foothill zone of the
Eastern Cordillera some 15 kilometers to the east, and active seepages of heavy oil
occur beyond the Tertiary overlap in the basement rocks of the Central Cordillera
to the southwest.
Stratigraphy.—Oil is confined (Fig. 28) to the Tune formation (Chuspas
group) and the Avechucos formation (Chorro group). The Tune formation is
highly argillaceous and contains red, brown, green, blue, and mottled claystones
and siltstones with light brown to gray, fine- to medium-grained sandstones. The
sandstones are thin, lenticular, commonly cross bedded, and are composed of white
and glassy quartz with occasional isolated, well-rounded, white quartz pebbles.
The formation is about 2,000 feet thick in the Velasquez area, but thins to the west
and thickens eastward to perhaps 7,000 feet. By means of regional correlation there

* By W. C. Hatfield and H. Tanner, Texas Petroleum Company.

 T A B L E I. PRODUCTION STATISTICS AND O I L

PRODUCTION STATISTICS AND OIL

N°. OF
FIELD ZONE WELLS AVG. DAILY PROD. CUM.PROD AVG GROSS AVG.NET
PRODUCING 9-1-54 9-1-51 GOR GOR

LA CIRA A 145* 3561 13,099,383 934 934

B 324° 6616 50,203,642 I486 I486

C 3 24 Z 7489 217,214,960 1846 122

INFANTAS A 2 14 129,394 1016 1016

V
B 15I 2769 14,126,872 1267 1267

c 226V 6220 153,621,553 1823 403

X = 14 B AND A - Z 0 N E S . 4 2 C AND A - Z O N E S . 0 = 14 B ANO A - Z O N E S , 9 2 C AND

appears to be a major unconformity at the base of the Tune with several hundred
feet of section missing, including the fossiliferous horizons found elsewhere. Dep-
osition was by meandering braided streams, of materials derived from a deeply
weathered, low, land mass.
The Avechucos formation (Chorro group) contrasts with the Tune in being
mainly sandstones with relatively thin interbeddings of claystones. The sandstones
are white to gray, composed of white and glassy quartz grains, and generally con-
tain small white quartz pebbles. They are poorly sorted with considerable varia-
tion in roundness of grains, and are commonly strongly cross bedded, but otherwise
show little depositional structure. Only an occasional conglomerate is encountered,
and the clay and silt content of the sandstones varies considerably. The interbedded
clays and siltstones are gray, red, brown, blue, and commonly mottled. By re-
gional correlation it appears that the upper part of the formation is missing,
although locally there is no angularity with the overlying Tune. The formation is
about 2,000 feet thick at Velasquez, but thins to the west and thickens to the east.
The Avechucos was deposited under river flood-plain conditions. There are rapid
lateral as well as vertical lithologic changes that suggest seasonal changes in the
volume of the rivers as well as a meandering braided stream pattern. At times there
may have been ponding of the waters, indicated by groups of sands separated by
claystone breaks that are consistent for considerable distances. Although there is
CHARACTERISTICS OF T H E LA CIRA-INFANTAS FIELDS

CHARACTERISTICS, LA CIRA-INFANTAS

AVG OIL AVG. BHP AVG. P P M ESTIMATED

Vise. AVG. A.P.I. PS I. BHP DATUM AVG GAS . AVG WATER CHLORIDES OF ORIS. BHP
S . S. U. GRAVITY 9-1-54 FT SUBSE A GRAVITY PROO. % PROD. WATER P S. I.

355 21 4 127 - 500 O.fo 14.9 14,000 350

194 24 I 251 -1200 0.80 10.5 19,000 750

263 23.8 296 -3000 0.60 16 7 31,000 1570

— 25.9 — - 0.83 14.7 1 4,000 —

115 27,2 340 -1200 0.64 • 28.6 I apOO 560

100 27.9 250 -2000 0.86 15.4 31,000 875

A-ZONES Z = 42 C AND A - Z 0 N E S . 9 2 C AND B - Z O N E S V = 5 3 C AND B - Z O N E S

aa

lenticularity of the sands (Fig. 29), it cannot be said that any sand body is defi-
nitely an isolated lens.
Structure.—Structure at Velasquez is quite simple (Fig. 27). The sediments
have a gentle monoclinal dip to the southeast, interrupted by normal faults. There
is no folded reversal. The faults are small, the largest displacement recognized to
date being 375 feet. There is a west side barrier fault, not clearly recognized
either in wells or by geophysical means, that trends northwest at an angle to
the strike of the sediments. It is, nevertheless, an effective barrier, because oil-
bearing sands distributed through 3,000 feet of vertical section on the east side
of the fault are barren on the west side. The field is cut by several "horse-tail" faults
of small displacement that branch from the main fault, and these have acted
as secondary barriers for oil accumulation. Closure is completed at the deeper
southern end of each fault block by the angle at which the western barrier fault
cuts the bedding strike. The field is parallel to the barrier fault and rises diagonally
up dip its full length. Neither the southern nor northern limits of the field have
been determined.
Reservoirs and reservoir fluids.—Oil sands have been found all through the
Avechucos and in much of the Tune, but the latter are generally few in number in
any one well. Thus, oil sands have been found scattered through nearly 4,000 feet
of section. Several oil zones have been recognized, but none is consistently oil bear-
 1

OOO

X
••
/
>

/
/
/
/
/
/
t /
an /
>m /
)
1
/
—t
/
/

1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939

FIG. 26.—Average and cumulative production graph of the DeMares concession.

ing. Most of the sands appear to be interconnected, and the pressures run close
to hydrostatic. Permeability is variable, but relatively low. Oil accumulation is
probably due more to permeability barriers produced by the faults than to sand
offsets. The sands average about 21 per cent silt and clay and are poorly consoli-
dated, so only a small movement would be required to seal them.
The oil-bearing horizons contain salt water, and the question is still not settled
as to whether this is connate or introduced water, or a combination of both. The
problem is too lengthy for discussion here, except to say that all the sands in the
Avechucos and Tune contain salt water ranging in salinity from brackish to over
41,000 ppm, and that the variation shows no recognizable pattern, either vertically
or laterally.
The oil is asphaltic in base and ranges in gravity from 18.4 0 to 27.6° A.P.I, in
the Avechucos, and from 14.1 0 to 17.8° A.P.I, in the Tune. In general, the gravity
becomes lighter with depth and down structure, the heaviest oil coming from the
shallower wells up dip at the northern end of the field. The gas content is low, the
average gas-oil ratio being about 300, and the evidence is in favor of a water drive.
 _

PRODUCTION GRAPH
OF THE
DE M A R E S CONCESSION

BPD

1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

Between the "horse-tail" faults each block has its own down-dip water contact,
resulting in a sawtooth eastern boundary for the field. On the average the wells
are better in the upper part of each block. It is not proven yet as to whether the
oil is indigenous or has migrated from the Cretaceous, but the latter is generally
believed to be the case.
Production.—Production to the end of 1953 totaled 4,144,137 barrels and has
been limited by lack of outlet.

H A B I T A T O F O I L I N T H E M I D D L E M A G D A L E N A V A L L E Y

World-wide basin studies have shown that the character of crude petroleum for
any one period of deposition varies with its position in the basin. L. G. Weeks, in
unpublished company reports, has advanced sound reasons to substantiate the
theory of heavy, asphaltic and naphthenic oils forming first, and hence migrating
first under the process of compaction. This theory offers an explanation for the
general occurrence of the heavier oils in concentrations along the shallower margins
or flank belts of what was the original deposition basin. In the Middle Magdalena
 O I e MILES

Fig. 27.—Structural contour map on a producing horizon of the Velasquez field. A-Ai' and B-B'
are lines of sections in Figs. 28 and 29, respectively.
 4

SEA LEVEL

Fig. 28.—Structural cross section of the Velasquez field showing oil accumulation and oii-water
contacts. Line of section is A-A', Fig. 27.
 FIG. 29.—A correlation section of typical electric logs of the Velasquez field.
Line of section is B-B', Fig. 2 7.

Valley of Colombia, this concept is valid, not only for the Cretaceous oils but also
for the Tertiary.
Little is known about the occurrence of oil in the Cretaceous, as to date the
only producing fields in these strata in the valley are the Buturama and Totumal
fields (Figs. 10, 12 and 14). As was explained previously, the Middle Magdalena
Valley was only a small part of a vast geosynclinal area during Cretaceous times.
Regional evidence indicates that these fields are not located on the flank belts, thus
the fact that they produce only paraffin base oils further confirms the concept that
lighter oils are generally found in structural traps located toward the central or
deeper part of the basin.
Tertiary oil occurrences in the valley also strikingly illustrate the validity of
this principle (Fig. 10). This map shows the iso-gravity contour gradient decreas-
ing towards the ancient shoreline to the west. The Tertiary oil fields of Cantagallo,
Casabe, La Cira-Infantas, and Velasquez are located on the shallower margin of the
original Tertiary basin and accordingly produce the heavy, asphaltic-base oils. It
may be concluded then, that in the Middle Magdalena Valley of Colombia the
lighter Tertiary oils are to be found in the deeper portions of the present day basin.
The origin of the oil from the Tertiary fields in the Middle Magdalena Valley
is still in doubt. As oil is known to be indigenous to the Cretaceous, and because
the Tertiary sediments in the valley are mostly continental, it is more generally
believed that the Tertiary oil migrated from Cretaceous strata. However, as what
actually constitutes a source rock has not been proved definitely, and as brackish
and marine Tertiary facies do exist, an indigenous origin for the Tertiary oil can
not be summarily dismissed.
 r e f e r e n c e s

BUERGL, H. (1954), "El Cretaceo Inferior en Los Alrededores de Villa de Leiva (Boyaca),"
Boletin Geologico, Vol. 2, No. 1 Bogota, pp. 5-22.
, AND DUMIT, TOBON, Y . (1954), " E l Cretaceo Superior en la Region de Girardot,"
Boletin Geologico, Vol. 2, No. 1 Bogota, pp. 23-48.
BUTLER, J. W., JR. (1942), "Geology of Honda District, Colombia," Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol.
Geol., Vol. 26, No. 5, pp. 793-837.
CUSHMAN, J. A., AND HEDBERG, H. D. (1941), "Upper Cretaceous Foraminifera from Santander
del Norte, Colombia, S. A.," Cushman Lab. Foram. Research Contr. No. 232, Vol. 17,
Pt. 4, pp. 79-102.
HEDBERG, H. D., AND SASS, L. C. (1937), "Synopsis of the Geological Formations of the Western
Part of the Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela," Bol. Geol. Min. Ministerio de Fomento, Caracas,
(Eng. Ed.), Vol. 1, Nos. 2-4, pp. 73-112.
PETTERS, V. (1954), "Typical Foraminiferal Horizons in the Lower Cretaceous of Colombia,
S.A.," Cushman Found. Foram. Research, Contr. No. 112, Vol. 5, Pt. 3, pp. 128-37.
, (1955), "Development of Upper Cretaceous Foraminiferal Faunas in Colombia, S. A.,"
Jour. Paleon., Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 212-25.
PILSBRY, H. A., AND OLSSON, A. A. (1935), "Tertiary Fresh Water Mollusks of the Magdalena
Embayment, Colombia, with Tertiary Stratigraphy of the Middle Magdalena Valley by
O. C. Wheeler," Proc. Acad. Nat. Science Philadelphia, Vol. 87, pp. 7-39. (See Wheeler,
I93S-)
STAINFORTH, R. M., ET AL. (1949), "The Age of the Hannatoma Mollusk Fauna of South America,"
Jour. Paleon., Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 145-60.
STIRTON, R. A. (1953), "Vertebrate Paleontology and Continental Stratigraphy in Colombia,"
Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 64, No. 6, pp. 603-22.
VAN DER HAMMEN, TH. (1954), "El Desarrollo de la Flora Colombiana en Los Periodos
Geologicos, I. Maestrichtiano hasta Terciario mas Inferior," Boletin Geologico, Vol. II,
No. 1, Bogota, pp. 49-106.
WEEKS, L. G. (1952), "Factors of Sedimentary Basin Development that Control Oil Occur-
rence," Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Vol. 36, No. n , pp. 2071-2124.
WEISKE, F. (1926), "Memoria Detallada de los Estudios del Rio Magdalena; Obras Proyectadas
para su Arreglo y Resumen del Presupuesto," Editorial Minerva, Bogota, Ministerio de
Obras Publicas.
WHEELER, O. C. (1935), "Tertiary Stratigraphy of the Middle Magdalena Valley," Proc. Acad.
Nat. Science, Philadelphia, Vol. 87, pp. 7-39. (See Pilsbry and Olsson, 1935.)