Optical Materials 64 (2017) 18e25

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Optical Materials
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/optmat

Spectrophotometric method for optical band gap and electronic

transitions determination of semiconductor materials
Nicola Sangiorgi a, b, *, Lucrezia Aversa c, Roberta Tatti c, Roberto Verucchi c,
Alessandra Sanson a
a
CNR-ISTEC, Institute of Science and Technology for Ceramics, National Research Council of Italy, Via Granarolo 64, 48018 Faenza, Italy
b
Department of Chemical Science and Technology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
c
CNR-IMEM, Institute of Materials for Electronics and Magnetism, Via della Cascata 56/C, 38123 Trento, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The optical band gap energy and the electronic processes involved are important parameters of a
Received 22 July 2016 semiconductor material and it is therefore important to determine their correct values. Among the
Received in revised form possible methods, the spectrophotometric is one of the most common. Several methods can be applied to
3 November 2016
determine the optical band gap energy and still now a defined consensus on the most suitable one has
Accepted 11 November 2016
not been established. A highly diffused and accurate optical method is based on Tauc relationship,
however to apply this equation is necessary to know the nature of the electronic transitions involved
commonly related to the coefficient n. For this purpose, a spectrophotometric technique was used and
Keywords:
Band gap
we developed a graphical method for electronic transitions and band gap energy determination for
Electronic transitions samples in powder form. In particular, the n coefficient of Tauc equation was determined thorough
Graphical method mathematical elaboration of experimental results on TiO2 (anatase), ZnO, and SnO2. The results were
Semiconductors used to calculate the band gap energy values and then compared with the information obtained by
Ultraviolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy (UPS). This approach provides a quick and accurate method for
band gap determination through n coefficient calculation. Moreover, this simple but reliable method can
be used to evaluate the nature of electronic transition that occurs in a semiconductor material in powder
form.
© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction lattice to properly locate and define the energy levels. The peri-
odicity of the lattice is reflected into the probability distribution of
In the past few years a lot of new materials for energy conver- the electrons that must also be periodic. The lattice is infinite and
sion from renewable resource have been developed [1e7], with an the electrons typically form delocalised states that extend through
increasing interest in those showing nanoscale microstructure with the crystal. One type of wavefunction that describe these condi-
unique electrical, magnetic and optical properties. Most of these tions is Bloch wavefunction through wavevector (k) and the energy
materials are semiconductors, with valence band and conduction map (E) against wavevector k is the crystal band structure [8].
band separated by the so-called band gap energy (Eg) [8]. Eg is When the conduction band and valence band occur at the same
therefore a key property for a material to be used into technologies value of k, and the photon have a sufficient energy to create an
based on the conversion of sunlight into energy. When the sunlight electron-hole pair, the electron is promoted to the conduction band
is absorbed, several type of electronic transitions can occur, by a direct transition and the semiconductor is called a direct bad
depending on the band alignment of the material. In a crystalline gap material. On the other hand, if the minimum of conduction
materials, unlike atoms or molecules, we need to take account of an band and maximum of valence band occur at different values of k,
infinite array of atomic potentials arranged on an infinite periodic the promotion of an electron from the valence to conduction band
would cause a change in its momentum, and this must be supplied
by a phonon (i.e. a lattice vibration). This type of absorption is
* Corresponding author. CNR-ISTEC, Institute of Science and Technology for Ce- related to indirect transition and the semiconductor is called an
ramics, National Research Council of Italy, Via Granarolo 64, 48018 Faenza, Italy. indirect band gap material [9].
E-mail address: nicola.sangiorgi@istec.cnr.it (N. Sangiorgi).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.optmat.2016.11.014
0925-3467/© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 N. Sangiorgi et al. / Optical Materials 64 (2017) 18e25 19

[13] and the results pointed out the importance of the choice of an
appropriate graphical method to obtain reliable results. One of the
most accurate approach considers the diffuse reflectance spec-
troscopy (Kubelka Munk theory) and the mathematical elaboration
through Tauc equation in the form [13,15e21]:

n
ahn ¼ A hn  Eg (1)

where a is absorption coefficient, h is the Planck's constant (J$s), A

is the absorption constant, n is the light frequency (s1), and Eg is
band gap energy (eV). The n exponent in Eq. (1) is connected to the
type of possible electronic transitions and its value is 2 for an in-
direct allowed transition, 3 for an indirect forbidden, 1/2 for a direct
allowed and 3/2 for a direct forbidden transition.
Fig. 1. Flow sheet of method developed.
In order to use the Tauc relationship to determine the band gap
energy it's therefore important to know the correct value of n in Eq.
(1). Two main spectrophotometric procedures can be used to
The indirect band gap reduces the optical absorption, compared
calculate its value, the first is through absorbance measurements
to direct gap semiconductors, because “extra energy” is required for
whereas the second considers a mathematical elaboration of the
an electron promotion. The knowledge of these electronic transi-
Tauc relationship. In the first method is necessary to acquire the
tions is especially important for new synthesized materials applied
absorbance spectrum of the material of interest in form of pellets
in photovoltaic devices, water-splitting and perovskite solar cells
[22] or suspensions [17], but requires more sample preparation (e.g.
[10e12], and it is the most important variable for an accurate op-
stabilize the suspension) time while the second method provides
tical band gap determination. Several different spectrophotometric
the calculation of n coefficient from original reflectance data [23],
methods have been used in literature to graphically determine the
leading to higher precision.
band gap energy but not unanimous consensus has been reached
In this work we present a mathematical and graphical extrap-
regarding the best approach [13,14]. A comparative study of
olation of n coefficient from Tauc relationship. We elaborated a
different spectrophotometric analysis for TiO2 was made by Lo
pez
rapid and precise method for band gap determination for powder

Fig. 2. Powders X-ray diffraction patterns of (A) TiO2, (B) ZnO, (C) SnO2.
20 N. Sangiorgi et al. / Optical Materials 64 (2017) 18e25

samples that takes into account the use of diffuse reflectance 2.2. Photoelectron spectroscopy
spectroscopy and graphical and mathematical elaborations of the
experimental results. We validated this approach by measuring the Valence Band (VB) characterization has been carried out by
bang gap energy of three different reference semiconductor ma- means of Ultraviolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy (UPS) on the three
terials, TiO2, ZnO and SnO2 and the obtained results were compared samples (TiO2, ZnO and SnO) in a Ultra-High-Vacuum (UHV) char-
with UPS characterizations. acterization facility equipped with surface electron spectroscopies
[24]. Sample preparation was based on a reliable procedure in order
to reduce possible outgassing processes in UHV [25]. Metal oxide
2. Experimental powders were dispersed into a proper solvent (isopropyl alcohol),
then deposited onto a clean Si (100) surface. After drying they were
2.1. Spectrophotometric method introduced into the UHV chamber and analyzed. The UPS charac-
terization were carried out using a He-discharge lamp with UV
The method is based on the measurement of the diffuse photons at 21,22eV (HeI), and biasing the samples at 7 V. The
reflection spectra of TiO2 (15e25 nm, DT51-Millennium, USA), ZnO photoemitted electrons were collected by a VSW HA100 hemi-
(Nanogard®, 40e100 nm, Alfa Aesar, Germany), and SnO2 (<1 mm spherical analyser, equipped with PSP electronics, at normal inci-
average, Cerac, USA) commercial powders. A UVeVis spectropho- dence and room temperature. The typical energy resolution for UPS
tometer (LAMBDA 35, Perkin Elmer, USA) with an integrating is 0,1eV.
sphere (LABSPHERE RSA-PE-20, Perkin Elmer, USA) was used to
determine the optical band gap. The equipment was calibrated with
Spectralon® standard (LABSPHERE SRS-99-010) and the diffuse 3. Results and discussion
reflectance spectra were acquired in the range of 350e600 nm
range for TiO2 and ZnO, 330e600 nm for SnO2. The analyses The method for optical band gap and electronic transitions
considered bandwidth of 2 nm and scan speed of 480 nm/min. The determination was developed considering four steps for each single
crystal structures were studied by X-ray diffraction (Miniflex: sample. In the first step the diffuse reflectance spectra of the
Rigaku Co., Japan). The mathematical and graphical elaborations of powder was acquired. The UVeVis diffuse reflectance spectrum
the experimental values were made by using OriginLab Pro 2015 was then converted into the absorption mode using Kubelka-Munk
(USA). function (K-M). This model is valid in case of low absorbance

Fig. 3. Diffuse reflectance spectra of (A) TiO2, (B) ZnO, (C) SnO2.
 N. Sangiorgi et al. / Optical Materials 64 (2017) 18e25 21

materials [18] and when the particles size is larger than the In the third step n coefficient was calculated by the slope of the
0
wavelength of the incident light, in order to be able to separate the plot ln(F(R)hn) versus ln(hn-Eg). Finally, in the fourth step the op-
contribution of reflection, refraction and diffraction from diffuse tical band gap energy (Eg) was calculated plotting by linear fit of the
reflection (i.e. scattering occurs). In the limiting case of an infinitely flat section of the plot (F(R)hn)1/n versus hn at value of (F(R)hn) equal
thick sample, thickness and sample holder have no influence on the to zero. In Fig. 1 the flow sheet of the method is shown.
value of reflectance (R). In this case the Kubelka-Munk equation at All the powders used for this work were also characterized in
any wavelength becomes: terms of crystallographic phase (Fig. 2) being the optical properties
strongly related to their crystallographic features. In fact, each
ð1  RÞ2 a crystallographic phase possess a specific optical band gap energy
FðRÞ ¼ ¼ (2) (e.g TiO2 in anatase or rutile form), while the lattice parameters as
2R s
well as the presence of different crystalline, polycrystalline, amor-
where F(R), R, a, and s are Kubelka-Munk function, reflectance, phous phases and grain boundaries can influence the band gap
absorption coefficient, and scattering coefficient, respectively. energy.
0
In the second step, the intermediate optical band gap (Eg) was The systems show the expected phases: anatase form for TiO2
calculated by plotting F(R) versus hn, were h is Planck's constant (tetragonal lattice, JCPDS no. 21-1272), Wurtzite structure for ZnO
0
and n is the light frequency. The Eg value was obtained by the linear (Hexagonal lattice, JCPDS no. 36-1451) and Cassiterite (rutile) form
fit of the flat section of the curve at F(R) equal to zero and then used for SnO2 (Tetragonal lattice, JCPDS no. 41-1445). No signal of im-
to calculate n in the Tauc relationship (Eq. (1)) following this purities or side products was found, therefore the values of band
equation: gap should be related to the pure phases.
The analyses of diffuse reflectance (Step 1) showed very good
lnðahnÞ reproducibility among each sample, typical spectrum for each
n¼   (3)
ln hn  E0g material is reported in Fig. 3.
The spectra show similar trends depending on the semi-
where the absorption coefficient a can be replaced by F(R) [13,16]. conductor ability to absorb light. The reflectance spectra were then
When the material scatters in perfectly diffuse manner the scat- converted into F(R) using the Kubelka-Munk equation (Eq. (2)). The
0

tering coefficient s (Eq. (2)) is constant with respect to wavelength intermediate band gap energy (Eg) for each sample was calculated
[17]. by plotting F(R) versus hn and fitting the flat section of the curve

0
Fig. 4. Intermediate Eg determination (linear fit of the flat section of the curves and equations are reported) of (A) TiO2, (B) ZnO, (C) SnO2.
22 N. Sangiorgi et al. / Optical Materials 64 (2017) 18e25

Table 1 results that we obtained here represent the key point for the
Eg0 calculation from Fig. 4. method developed in this work. In fact, the experimental values
0
Sample Eg (eV) reported in Table 2 are obtained from Eq. (3) with denominator
0

TiO2 3,29 ± 0,02

equal to ln (hn-Eg) and its value is mathematically positive only for
ZnO 3,23 ± 0,010 values of hn larger than the value of E’g. This particular situation is
SnO2 3,55 ± 0,05 possible only at low wavelengths that correspond to the minimum
of reflectance: considering the diffuse reflectance spectra (Fig. 3),
this range of wavelengths is located below 360 nm for TiO2, 375 for
ZnO and 310 nm for SnO2. Only these portions of the spectrum are
(Step 2). The results of the second step are shown for each metal suitable for the n coefficient calculation through this graphical
oxide in Fig. 4. methods. The Step 4 involved the optical band gap determination
By the linear fit of the flat part of the curve in Fig. 4 it's possible through Tauc equation by plotting (F(R)hn)1/n versus hn. The optical
0
to calculate Eg when F(R) is equal to zero. The obtained values are band gap energy was extrapolated by the linear fit of the flat section
reported in Table 1. at value of (F(R)hn) equal to zero, calculated considering the value of
The standard deviation provides an acceptable reproducibility n previously obtained. The obtained Eg are reported in Fig. 6 and
0
and repeatability on the analyses. Knowing the value of Eg was then Table 3.
possible to calculate the n coefficient (Step 3). The graphical elab- The results in Table 3 are in agreement with the value present in
orations of Eq. (3) for each materials are reported in Fig. 5 and from literature for TiO2 anatase (3,22 eV) [26,29e31], ZnO wurtzite
the slope of the interpolation line obtained by linear fitting of these (3,37 eV) [32,33] and SnO2 rutile form (3,62 eV) [34,35]. The min-
experimental points the n coefficient was extrapolated and the imal differences between results and theoretical values are prob-
obtained results are shown in Table 2. ably attributed to the difference in particles dimension. In fact,
The results reported in Table 2 were approximated to n equal 2 some difference in band gap energy were founded in materials with
for TiO2 and equal 0,5 for the other two materials. These values are the same crystalline phase but different dimensions (i.e. nano-
in good agreement with the literature. It is well known in fact that powder or bulkpowder) [13]. In order to validate these results, the
anatase is an indirect semiconductor (n ¼ 2) [26], whereas ZnO and electronic properties of each semiconductor were calculated by
SnO2 are direct semiconductor materials (n ¼ 0,5) [17,27,28]. The UPS characterization (Fig. 7).

Fig. 5. Graphical elaboration of equation n. 3 (the fitting curves and equations are reported) of (A) TiO2, (B) ZnO, (C) SnO2.
 N. Sangiorgi et al. / Optical Materials 64 (2017) 18e25 23

Table 2 Table 3
n coefficient determination from Fig. 5. Eg calculation from Fig. 6.

Sample n coefficient Sample Eg (eV)

TiO2 2,10 ± 0,20 TiO2 3,24 ± 0,01

ZnO 0,48 ± 0,12 ZnO 3,26 ± 0,01
SnO2 0,66 ± 0,17 SnO2 3,63 ± 0,02

From Fig. 7 it is possible to determine for each sample the value UPS is a spectroscopy technique that involves filled states but
of the valence band maximum (VBM) from the leading edge of the cannot probe at the same time the empty states that would define
valence band at low Binding Energies (BE) and the secondary cut- exactly the CBM, thus the band gap, an evaluation only possible in a
off (SECO) at high BE, two parameters that define the energy combined and time-consuming inverse photoemission (IPS) e UPS
levels of the material. The work function (WF) is calculated as the experiment. Since the materials we are analyzing are commercial
difference between the photon energy and the spectral length, i.e. standard powders of well-known compounds, we are here
the VBM minus the SECO [36], minus a parameter ε defined as the assuming that the electronic transitions involved are the reported
difference between the VBM and the Fermi Level. In particular, the O2p/Ti3d in TiO2, O2p/Zn4s in ZnO and O2p/Sn5s in SnO2
VBM for TiO2, ZnO and SnO2 is located at ca. 3,4, 3,2 and 3,8 eV [42e44].
below the Fermi level (BE ¼ 0) while the WF is 4,3, 3,6 and 4,4 eV TiO2, ZnO and SnO2 are well known n-type semiconductors due
respectively. Adding ε to WF, the position of VBM can be referred to to oxygen defects inside the lattice structure so the Fermi level is
the vacuum level. In this way, the values obtained for TiO2 ZnO and typically right below the conduction band edge [9,45]. Considering
SnO2 are 7,7, 6,8 and 8,2 eV and adding the calculated optical band the VBM determined by UPS and the calculated CBM, the latter are
gap energy (Table 3) to the VBM, the value of the conduction band 0,3e1,1 eV above the Fermi level, thus in agreement with the n-type
minimum (CBM) for each semiconductor can be calculated. These nature of these materials. These results obtained by UPS charac-
values for TiO2 ZnO and SnO2 are 4,5, 3,6 and 4,6 eV (referred to the terization indicate the reliability of the spectrophotometric and
vacuum level) in agreement with those reported in literature graphical method developed in this work.
[37e41].

Fig. 6. Eg determination (linear fit of the flat section of the curves and equations are reported) of (A) TiO2, (B) ZnO, (C) SnO2.
24 N. Sangiorgi et al. / Optical Materials 64 (2017) 18e25

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