Serie de Potencias

IRREDUCIBLE PLANE CURVE
SINGULARITIES
ABRAMO HEFEZ
i
To my parents from whom I learned the essen e of life.

ii
INTRODUCTION
The main obje tive of these notes is to introdu e the reader to the lo al
study of singularities of plane urves from an algebrai point of view. This
small book is a kind of formulaire where the working singularist an nd
the basi fa ts and formulas, with their omplete proofs, that exist in this
ontext.
The subje t, singularities of urves, has motivated for more than a en-
tury innumerable resear h work and is still a fertile eld of investigation.
To motivate the framework in whi h we will pla e ourselves, suppose
that a non- onstant polynomial f (X; Y ) 2 C[I X; Y ℄ is given and onsider the
algebrai omplex plane urve
n o
C = Cf = (x; y) 2 CI 2 ; f (x; y) = 0 :
The lo al study of the urve C in the neighborhood of a point P =
(a; b) 2 C depends whether the urve is regular or singular at P .
In ase that C is regular at P , that is, when the partial derivatives fX
and fY are not simultaneously zero at P , say fY (P ) 6= 0, then the Impli it
Fun tion Theorem tells us that in a neighborhood of P , we may expli it
Y in the relation f (X; Y ) = 0, as a power series in X onvergent in a
neighborhood of a in C.
I That is, in a neighborhood of P , the urve C is the
graph of an analyti fun tion of one variable.
When C is singular at P , that is, when f (P ) = fX (P ) = fY (P ) = 0,
Newton, in his 1676 triangular orresponden e with Leibniz via Oldenburg
(see [BK℄), proposes a solution for the problem expanding Y as a power
series with fra tional exponents in X . The point of view of Newton was
purely formal without any on ern about onvergen e of series and without
worrying about multivalued fun tions that appear in this ontext, things that
only later would be laried by Riemann and Puiseux. Newton's approa h
was onstru tive, giving an algorithm to determine su h an expansion using
what is alled nowadays Newton's polygon of the urve at P .
In 1850, M.V. Puiseux published a long arti le [P℄, where he studies
from the point of view of fun tions of a omplex variable the solutions of
iii
the equation f (X; Y ) = 0, where f is a polynomial fun tion in two omplex

variables, in the neighborhood of an arbitrary point. Puiseux su eeds to
justify from an analyti point of view Newton's manipulation on fra tional
exponents.
When the urve is regular, its behavior in a small neighborhood of P is
entirely known: it is lo ally isomorphi to the urve given by Y = 0.
When the point P is singular, the situation is quite dierent. Consider
the following examples, f = Y 2 X 3 and g = Y 2 X 2 (X + 1), where
P = (0; 0):
How to study a urve in a small neighborhood of a singular point? In

parti ular, how one ould re ognize algebrai ally the lo al redu ibility of a
singular urve, as for example the above urve Cg at the point P = (0; 0)?
Certainly the ring C[I X; Y ℄ is not suitable for this purpose, sin e the poly-
nomial g is irredu ible in it. The idea is to enlarge the ring C[
I X; Y ℄ in su h
a way that the lo al redu ibility of Cg at P appears. As a rst attempt, we
may onsider the lo al ring

'
I X; Y ℄M =
C[ ; '; 2 C[
I X; Y ℄; 62 M ;
where M = hX; Y i is the maximal ideal of C[ I X; Y ℄, orresponding to the

point P = (0; 0).
This is ee tively a lo al ring, that is, a ring with a unique maximal ideal
(in this ase, hX; Y i C[
I X; Y ℄M ), whi h in a sense ontains lo alized informa-
tion at P = (0; 0) about all urves that ontain P . Unfortunately, this is
not suÆ ient sin e g is still irredu ible in this ring. Another attempt is to
omplete the lo al ring C[I X; Y ℄M with respe t to the topology asso iated to
its maximal ideal, leading to the ring of formal power series in two variables
iv
I X; Y ℄℄, where nally g splits into two irredu ible fa tors as follows:
C[[
g = (Y + X + terms of degree 2)(Y X + terms of degree 2):
It is in this ring that we get all innitesimal algebrai information about
an algebrai urve at the point P = (0; 0). In this way we retake Newton's
point of view, going ba k to the origins.
This book is a ompilation of results of many mathemati ians, starting
in the seventeenth entury with Isaa Newton, passing through the nine-
teenth entury with the ontribution of K. Weierstrass, M.V. Puiseux and
M. Noether and ending in the twentieth entury with the ontribution of
O. Zariski, S.S. Abhyankar, R. Apery and A. Azevedo, among many others.
The reader interested in more modern material is invited to onsult [H℄.
The book is divided into eight hapters, whi h we des ribe below.
In Chapter 1, we introdu e the rings of formal power series studying
their units and automorphisms. We end the hapter with the fundamental
Hensel's Lemma.
In Chapter 2, we study the Weierstrass Preparation Theorem that re-
du es the study of formal power series to that of ertain polynomials. Most
algebrai properties of the rings of formal power series are dedu ed from this
Theorem. We also in lude, for the onvenien e of the reader, a se tion on
elimination whose results will be used essentially in Chapter 4.
In Chapter 3, we introdu e our main obje t of study, the algebroid ir-
redu ible plane urves or plane bran hes, and study their parametrization
given by the Newton-Puiseux Theorem. This theorem is a fundamental tool
for the study of plane bran hes dened over elds of hara teristi zero. At
the end of the hapter, we dis uss some properties of germs of plane analyti
urves.
In Chapter 4, we introdu e the lo al ring of a plane bran h, studying
some of its properties. In the sequel we make a parentheti al presentation
of some results in Linear Algebra that will be essential for what will follow.
After this, we dene the interse tion index of two urves at a point and
dedu e its properties, showing several ways it may be omputed.
Chapter 5 is dedi ated to the resolution of singularities of irredu ible
algebroid plane urves by means of a sequen e of quadrati transformations.
In this way, we get a nite sequen e of multipli ities asso iated to these
su essive transforms of the singularity, alled the multipli ity sequen e of
the singularity and leading to the notion of equiresolubility. At the end
of the hapter we establish a formula due to Max Noether that relates the
interse tion index of two urves with that of their quadrati transforms.
v
In Chapter 6, we introdu e the semigroup of values asso iated to a plane

bran h. This is a semigroup of natural numbers with ondu tor and it is
an important arithmeti invariant asso iated to the bran h, leading to the
notion of equisingularity due to Zariski. It is shown that equiresolubility
and equisingularity for plane bran hes are equivalent. We also show that
the hara teristi integers asso iated to a Puiseux parametrization of the
urve we introdu ed in Chapter 3 hara terize as well the equisingularity
lasses.
In Chapter 7, we study some arithmeti asso iated to the sub-semigroups
of the natural numbers. We explore the notion of strongly in reasing semi-
group and introdu e the on ept of symmetri semigroup, properties that
are shared by the semigroups of values of plane bran hes. At the end of
the hapter we apply these notions to bran hes, relating Milnor's number
introdu ed in [Mi℄ to the ondu tor of the semigroup of the bran h.
Finally, in Chapter 8 we study the onta t among two plane bran hes
and show how the interse tion index of two su h bran hes an be also om-
puted by their Puiseux expansions. We also des ribe all possible interse tion
indi es two urves, ea h belonging to a given equisingularity lass. Finally,
we dis uss brie y the notion of maximal onta t among bran hes.
Along these notes, to refer to a ertain result, we use the onvention
that the numbers that appear after the words Theorem, Proposition, et .,
indi ate rst the number of the hapter and then the relative position of
the result in the hapter. For instan e, Theorem 3.1 means Theorem 1 in
Chapter 3, or if in the same hapter, we indi ate only the number of the
result. To the problems are asso iated three numbers whi h represent in
order, the hapter, the se tion and the number of the problem itself.
I would like to thank the Organizing Committee of the Workshop for
the invitation to tea h this mini- ourse and subsequently the Editors of this
volume for inviting me to publish these notes. Finally, it is a pleasure to
thank M.E. Hernandes and V. Bayer for sharing my interest on the subje t
and for reading arefully an early version of the manus ript.
Niteroi, May 2002

vi
Contents
1 POWER SERIES 1
1.1 Rings of Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Metri on Power Series Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 The Laurent Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5 Hensel's Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2 THE PREPARATION THEOREM 21
2.1 The Division Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 Fa torization of Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3 Hilbert-Ru kert Basis Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4 Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3 PLANE CURVES 39
3.1 Algebroid Plane Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2 Newton-Puiseux Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3 Extensions of the Field of Laurent Series . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4 Parametrization and Chara teristi Exponents . . . . . . . . 53
3.5 Plane Analyti Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4 INTERSECTION OF CURVES 67
4.1 The Lo al Ring of a Plane Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2 Complements of Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.3 Interse tion Indi es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5 RESOLUTION OF SINGULARITIES 87
5.1 Quadrati Transformations in CI 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.2 Resolution of Singularities of Plane Curves . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.3 Noether's formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
vii
CONTENTS 1
6 SEMIGROUPS OF PLANE BRANCHES 101

6.1 Semigroups of the naturals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.2 Semigroups of Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.3 Semigroups and Cartesian Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.4 Apery Sequen e of the Semigroup of Values . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.5 Semigroups and Blowing-Ups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7 SEMIGROUPS OF THE NATURALS 127
7.1 Semigroups with Condu tors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.2 Strongly In reasing Semigroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.3 Apery Sequen es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.4 Appli ation to Semigroups of Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
8 CONTACT AMONG BRANCHES 143
8.1 The Conta t Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8.2 Pairs of Bran hes with Given Semigroups . . . . . . . . . . . 148
8.3 Maximal Conta t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
INDEX 154
BIBLIOGRAPHY 156
2 CONTENTS
Chapter 1
POWER SERIES
In this hapter we introdu e the rings of formal power series and study some
of their basi algebrai properties.
1.1 Rings of Power Series

Let K be a eld and X1 ; : : : ; Xr indeterminates over K . Denote by
R = K [[X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄℄
the set of all formal sums of the type
1
X
f = Pi = P0 + P1 + P2 + ;
i=0
where ea h Pi is a homogeneous polynomial of degree1 i in the indeterminates
X1 ; : : : ; Xr , with oeÆ ients in K . The elements of R will be alled formal
power series in the indeterminates X1 ; : : : ; Xr with oeÆ ients in K .
Let f = P0 + P1 + and g = Q0 + Q1 + be elements of R. By
denition we have
f =g () Pi = Qi; 8i 2 IN:
In R we dene the following operations:
X1 1X
X i
f + g = (Pi + Qi ) and f g = Pj Qi j :
i=0 i=0 j =0
1 We will onsider the zero polynomial as a homogeneous polynomial of any degree.
1
2 CHAPTER 1. POWER SERIES
It is easy to verify that, with these operations, R is a unitary ommu-

tative ring, alled the ring of formal power series in r indeterminates with
oeÆ ients in K .
The ring R has as subrings the eld K and the ring of polynomials
K [X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄.
The elements of R may be represented more expli itly in the form
X1 X
f= ai1 ;:::;ir X1i1 : : : Xrir ; ai1 ;:::;ir 2 K:
i=0 i1 ++ir =i
If K is the eld of real or omplex numbers, we may onsider the subring
A = K fX1 ; : : : ; Xr g of R onsisting of the absolutely onvergent power series
in the neighborhood of the P (0; : : : ; 0). In other
P origin words, the elements
of A are the series f = 1 i=0 i1 ++ir =i 1 r 1 a i ;:::;i X i1 : : : X ir for whi h there
r
exists a positive real number (depending on f ) su h that the series
X 1 X
jai1 ;:::;ir ji1 ++ir
i=0 i1 ++ir =i
is onvergent.
The following result will des ribe the invertible elements of R.
P
Proposition 1 The element f = 1 i=0 Pi in R is invertible if and only if
P0 6= 0.
Proof: Let g = Q0 + Q1 + , and onsider the equation
1 = f g = P0 Q0 + (P1 Q0 + P0 Q1 ) + :
This equation is equivalent to the system of equations
P0 Q0 = 1;
P1 Q0 + P0 Q1 = 0;
::: (1.1)
Pn Q0 + Pn 1 Q1 + + P0 Qn = 0;
:::
It follows that f is invertible if and only if the system (1.1) has a solution
in the Qi 's. In this ase, f 1 = g.
If f is invertible, then there exists Q0 su h that P0 Q0 = 1, and onse-
quently, P0 6= 0.
1.1. RINGS OF POWER SERIES 3
Conversely, suppose that P0 6= 0. Then the system (1.1) has a solution

given by the following re ursive relations:
Q0 = P0 1 ; Q1 = P0 1 P1 Q0 ;
Qn = P0 1 (Pn Q0 + + P1 Qn 1 ):
2
Two elements f and g in R will be alled asso iated if there exists a unit
(i.e. an invertible element) u su h that f = u g.
Definition Let f 2 R n f0g. Suppose that
f = Pn + Pn+1 + ;
where every Pj is a homogeneous polynomial of degree j and Pn 6= 0. The
homogeneous polynomial Pn is alled the initial form of f . The integer n
is alled the multipli ity of f and is denoted by mult(f ). If f = 0, we put
mult(f ) = 1.
A ording to Proposition 1, we have that f 2 R is invertible if and only
if mult(f ) = 0.
The multipli ity of power series has the following properties:
Proposition 2 Let f; g 2 R. We have
i) mult(f g) = mult(f ) + mult(g)
ii) mult(f g) minfmult(f ); mult(g)g, with equality sign holding when-
ever mult(f ) 6= mult(g).
Proof: We will leave this easy veri ation as an exer ise to the reader.
The notion of multipli ity of power series will play a role similar to that
of the degree for polynomials.
Proposition 3 The ring R is a domain.
Proof: If f; g 2 R n f0g, then from Proposition 2(i), we have
mult(f g) = mult(f ) + mult(g) < 1:

This implies that f g 6= 0.
2
We will denote by MR = hX1 ; : : : ; Xr i the ideal of R generated by

X1 ; : : : ; Xr . We denote by MiR the ith power of the ideal MR , and put
M0R = R:
Proposition 4 The ideal MR is the unique maximal ideal of R and is su h
that \
MiR = f0g:
i2IN
Proof: For the rst assertion, it suÆ es to show that R n MR is the set
of all invertible elements of R, whi h follows from Proposition 1.
To nish the proof of the proposition, noti e that if every Pi , i 2 IN, is a
homogeneous polynomial of degree i, then
X
Pi 2 MjR () P0 = P1 = = Pj 1 = 0:
i2IN
This implies the result.
2
Problems
1.1) a) Let K [[X ℄℄ be the ring of power series in one indeterminate X , with
oeÆ ients in K . Show that in K [[X ℄℄ we have the identity:
1
X
(1 X ) X i = 1:
i=0
b) Show that in K [[X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄℄ we have the following equality:
X1 X
(1 X1 ) (1 Xr ) X1i1 : : : Xrir = 1:
i=0 i1 ++ir =i
) Find the rst ve homogeneous omponents of the inverse of
f = 1 + X + Y + X 2 + Y 2 + X 3 + Y 3 in K [[X; Y ℄℄.
1.2) a) Prove Proposition 2.
b) Show that if f and g are asso iated in R, then mult(f ) = mult(g).
1.3) Let g1 ; : : : ; gs 2 MR and let P (Y1 ; : : : ; Ys ) be a homogeneous polyno-
mial of degree n.
a) Let i1 ; : : : ; is 2 IN. Show that
mult(g1i1 gsis ) = i1 mult(g1 ) + + is mult(gs ) i1 + + is :
1.2. METRIC ON POWER SERIES RINGS 5
b) Show that mult(P (g1 ; : : : ; gs )) n.

1.4) a) Show that if f 2 K [[X ℄℄ n f0g, then there exists an integer m 0
and an invertible element u 2 K [[X ℄℄ su h that f = X m u.
b) Show that K [[X ℄℄ is a prin ipal ideal domain and that every non-zero
ideal of it is generated by X m , for some m 2 IN.
) Con lude that K [[X ℄℄ is a unique fa torization domain.
d) Let F = Y n + a1 (X )Y n 1 + + an (X ) 2 K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄ su h that X divides
ai (X ), for i = 1; : : : ; n, but X 2 doesn't divide an (X ). Show that F is
irredu ible in K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄ (Eisenstein's riterion).
1.5) Let MR be the maximal ideal of R = K [[X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄℄. Show that
a) f 2 MjR () mult(f ) j .
b) mult(f ) = maxfi; f 2 MiR g.
1.2 Metri on Power Series Rings

To deal with some questions on erning innite sets of power series, spe-
ially when we want to give a meaning to innite sums of series, it will be
onvenient do dene a metri on su h sets. This is what we are going to do
next.
As usual, denote by R the ring K [[X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄℄ and by MR its maximal
ideal. Let > 1 be a real number and onsider the following map
d: R R ! IR:
(f; g) 7! d(f; g) = mult(f g)
Proposition 5 The pair (R; d) is a omplete metri spa e.
Proof: To verify that d is a metri on R, rst remark that d(f; g) 0.

Next we have that d(f; g) = 0 if and only if mult(f g) = 1, whi h is
equivalent to f = g.
The map d is obviously symmetri . Consider now the following inequal-
ity:
mult(f g) = mult((f h) (g h)) min fmult(f h); mult(g h)g := m;
whi h implies the triangular inequality, be ause
d(f; g) = mult(f g) m mult(f h) + mult(g h) = d(f; h) + d(h; g ):
To show that (R; d) is a omplete metri spa e, let (fn )n2IN be a Cau hy
sequen e in R . Then, for every n 2 IN, there exists an integer (n) su h
that
d(f` ; fm ) < n ; 8 `; m (n);
and this implies that
f` fm 2 MnR ; 8 `; m (n):
We may obviously hoose the (n) in su h a way that they form an
in reasing sequen e, so we have
f (n) f (n+1) 2 MnR ; 8 n 2 IN:
Now, for every i 2 IN, write
f (i) = Pi;0 + Pi;1 + ;
where ea h Pi;j is a homogeneous polynomial of degree j , and dene
f = P1;0 + P2;1 + + Pi+1;i +
It is not diÆ ult to verify that
f f (i) 2 MiR ; 8 i 2 IN;
whi h in turn implies easily that
lim f
n!1 (n)
= f;
This shows that the Cau hy sequen e (fn ) has a subsequen e (f (n) ) that
onverges to the element f 2 R, hen e the sequen e itself onverges to f .
2
Although, by denition, we only may add a nite number of power series,
it is possible, in some ir umstan es, to sum innite families of power series.
Definition Let F = ff; 2 g be a given family of power series in R.

We will say that the family F is summable if, for every integer n 2 IN, we
have
# f 2 ; mult(f ) ng < 1: (1.2)
Proposition 6 Let ff ; 2 g, and fg ; 2 g be two summable families

in R and let A; B 2 R. Then the following holds.
P
i) The sum 2 f is well dened in R.
ii) The family fAf + Bg ; 2 g is summable and
X X X
(Af + Bg ) = A f + B g :
2 2 2
iii) The family ff g ; (; ) 2 g is summable and

X X X
( f )( g ) = fg :
2 2 (;)2
Proof: (i) The set
n = f 2 ; mult(f ) ng
is nite, sin e (1.2) holds. Put
X
hn = f :
2n
Sin e for m > n,

m = n [ f 2 ; n < mult(f ) mg;
it follows that, for all m n, we have mult(hm hn ) > n, whi h implies
that (hn )n2IN is a Cau hy sequen e,
P hen e onvergent to an element of R.
The limit will be denoted by 2 f .
(ii) Given n 2 IN, we have that the set
00 = f 2 ; mult(Af + Bg ) ng;
n
is nite be ause there are nitely many 's satisfying the following inequality
min fmult(A) + mult(f ); mult(B ) + mult(g )g mult(Af + Bg ) n:
Now, let n be as above and put
0n = f 2 ; mult(g ) ng :
P P P
Dening n = 200n (Af + Bg ) and n = A 2n f + B 20n g ,
we have that n n 2 MnR+1 , hen e limn!1( n n ) = 0, and the result
follows onsidering the following equalities:
X X X
lim
n!1 n =A f + B g and lim = (Af + Bg ):
n!1 n
2 2 2
(iii) Let n and 0n be as above, and dene

00 = f(; ) 2 ; mult(f g ) ng:
n
This last set is obviously nite. Now, dening
X X X
n = f g and n = ( f)( g );
(;)200n 2n 20n
we have as above,
lim ( n
n!1
n ) = 0;
whi h together with
X X X
lim = ( f )( g );
n!1 n
and lim =
n!1 n
f g ;
2 2 (;)2
imply the result.
2
Let fPi ; i 2 INg be a family of homogeneous polynomials, with Pi 2
K [Y1 ; : : : Ys ℄ of degree i, and let g1 ; : : : ; gs 2 MR . the family
F = fPi (g1 ; : : : ; gs ); i 2 INg
is summable, be ause of the inequalities (see Problem 1.3)
mult(Pi (g1 ; : : : ; gs )) i; 8i 2 IN:
P
If f = i2IN Pi (Y1 ; : : : ; Ys ) 2 K [[Y1 ; : : : ; Ys ℄℄, then the sum of the fam-
ily F will be denoted by f (g1 ; : : : ; gs ), and will be alled the substitution
of Y1 ; : : : ; Ys by g1 ; : : : ; gs in f . In parti ular, it is possible to substitute
Y1 ; : : : ; Yr by 0; : : : ; 0 in f , getting P0 .
The following result follows immediately from Proposition 6.
Corollary Given g1 ; : : : ; gs 2 MR , f; h 2 K [[Y1; : : : ; Ys℄℄ and a 2 K , then

(i) (f + ah)(g1 ; : : : ; gs ) = f (g1 ; : : : ; gs ) + ah(g1 ; : : : ; gs ).
(ii) (f h)(g1 ; : : : ; gs ) = f (g1 ; : : : ; gs ) h(g1 ; : : : ; gs ).
(iii) The substitution map
Sg1 ;:::;gs : K [[Y1 ; : : : ; Ys ℄℄ ! K [[X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄℄
f 7 Sg1;:::;gs (f ) = f (g1; : : : ; gs )
!
is a homomorphism of K -algebras .
In the next se tion we will see that any homomorphism of K -algebras is

a substitution map.
Noti e that the ondition g1 ; : : : ; gs 2 MR is essential in order to make
substitutions. For example, if f (X ) = 1 + X + X 2 + 2 K [[X ℄℄, what
would be f (1) ? More generally, given g1 ; : : : ; gs 2 R, su h that for some i,
gi (0) = 2 K n f0g, then taking f (Y1 ; : : : ; Ys ) = 1 + 1 Yi + 2 Yi2 + , we
have that f (g1 ; : : : ; gs ) is not dened as an element of R, sin e otherwise we
would have
f (g1 ; : : : ; gs )(0; : : : ; 0) = 1 + 1 + 1 + 2 R;
whi h is a ontradi tion.
Let Pi 2 K [X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄, i 2 IN be a family of homogeneous polynomials
with deg(Pi ) = i. For all (j1 ; : : : ; jr ) 2 INr the family
(
j1 ++jr
)
G = j1 Pijr ; i 2 IN
X1 Xr
is summable.
P The sum of the family G is what we all the partial derivative
of f = i2IN Pi of order j1 in X1 , et ., and of order jr in Xr , and is denoted
by
j1 ++jr f
:
X1j1 Xrjr
Problems
2.1) Suppose that f 2 R is su h that f (0) = a 6= 0. Using the identity in

Problem 1.1 (a), show that
X 1
f 1 = a 1 (1 a 1 f )i :
i=0
2.2) Let fi 2 R, i 2 IN, be su h that limi mult(fi ) = 1.
a) Show that (fi ) is a Cau hy sequen e in R, whose limit is 0 2 R.
b) Show that the family F = ffi ; i 2 INg is summable.
2.3) Let F = ffi ; i 2 INg be aP summable family of power series in R.
a) Show that the innite sum 1 i=1 fi is independent of the order in whi h
we write the elements P i f .
b) Show that mult( 1 i=0 fi ) minfmult(fi ); i 2 INg.
2.4) Show that with the metri we dened in R, we have:
a) The operations of addition and multipli ation are ontinuous.
b) The substitution homomorphism Sg1 ;:::;gs is ontinuous.
2.5) Show that K [X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄ is dense in K [[X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄℄. Show also that
K [[X1 ; : : : ; Xr 1 ℄℄ is losed in K [[X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄℄.
2.6) a) Show that if f 2 K [[Y1 ; : : : ; Ys ℄℄ and g1 ; : : : ; gs 2 K [[X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄℄,
are su h that mult(gi ) 1, for i = 1; : : : ; s, then
mult(Sg1 ;:::;gs (f )) = mult(f (g1 ; : : : ; gs )) mult(f ) minfmult(gi ); i 2 INg:
b) Show that f 2 K [[X ℄℄ n f0g and g 2 K [[X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄℄ n f0g, with
mult(g) 1, then
mult(f (g)) = mult(f ) mult(g):
2.7) Show that if the hara teristi of K is zero, then the multipli ity of
f 2 R n f0g may be determined as follows:
( )
i1 ++ir f
mult(f ) = min i1 + + ir ; i1 (0) 6= 0 :
X1 Xrir
1.3. HOMOMORPHISMS 11
1.3 Homomorphisms
Let R = K [[X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄℄ and S = K [[Y1 ; : : : ; Ys ℄℄. Denoting respe tively
their maximal ideals by MR and MS , we have the following result:
Proposition 7 Let T : S ! R be a homomorphism of K -algebras. Then
i) T (MS ) MR .
ii) T is ontinuous.
iii) There exist g1 ; : : : ; gs 2 MR su h that T = Sg1 ;:::;gs .
Proof: (i) Let f 2 MS and suppose that T (f ) 62 MR . Then we may

write T (f ) = + g, where 2 K n f0g and g 2 MR . It then follows that
T (f ) = g;
where f is invertible in S , while g is not invertible in R, whi h is a
ontradi tion.
(ii) It follows immediately from (i) that T (MnS ) MnR , whi h easily implies
that T is ontinuous.
From (i) we have that T (Yj ) = gj 2 MR , for j = 1; : : : ; s. Now let
(iii) P
f = i2IN Pi . Sin e
n
X n
X
T( Pi ) = Pi (g1 ; : : : ; gs );
i=0 i=0
P Pn
limn!1 ni=0 Pi = f , limn!1 i=0 Pi (g1 ; : : : ; gs ) = f (g1 ; : : : ; gs ) and T is
ontinuous, the result follows.
2
So, given a homomorphism T : S ! R, there exist g1 ; : : : ; gs 2 MR
su h that T = Sg1 ;:::;gs . Let us now see whi h additional onditions we must
impose on g1 ; : : : ; gs to guarantee that T is a K -isomorphism.
Initially, observe that every K -isomorphism from S to R must preserve
multipli ities. Indeed, from Problem 2.6(a), it follows that for all f 2 S ,
mult(f ) mult(T (f )) mult(T 1 (T (f ))) = mult(f );
whi h proves our assertion.
Sin e T (Yi ) = gi , for i = 1; : : : ; s, it follows that mult(gi ) = 1, for all

i = 1; : : : ; s. Let L1 ; : : : ; Ls respe tively the initial forms of g1 ; : : : ; gs , whi h
are homogeneous polynomials of degree one in X1 ; : : : ; Xr . Suppose for a
moment that there exists a K -linear non-trivial dependen y relation,
a1 L1 + + as Ls = 0:
Then if we take f = a1 Y1 + + as Ys , it would follow that
mult(T (f )) = mult(Sg1 ;:::;gs (f )) > mult(f );
whi h would imply that Sg1 ;:::;gs is not a K -isomorphism.
Consequently, a ne essary ondition for Sg1 ;:::;gs to be a K -isomorphism
from S onto R is that the initial forms of the gi 's ought to be linear forms,
linearly independent over K . This, in parti ular, shows that s r, and by
arguing in the same way with T 1 instead of T , we get that r = s.
In order to prove that the above onditions are also suÆ ient, we will
need the following lemma.
Lemma 1 A subring A of R is dense in R if and only if given any homo-
geneous polynomial P 2 K [X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄, there exists an element in A whose
initial form is P .
Proof: Suppose that A is dense in R, and let P be a homogeneous poly-

nomial of degree d in K [X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄. Let n be an integer greater than d.
Be ause A is dense in R, the polynomial P is the limit of a sequen e of
elements in A, therefore, there exists an f 2 R su h that mult(f P ) n.
Sin e n > d, it follows that P is the initial form of f .
Conversely, suppose that A has the property of the statement of the
lemma and let f be an element of R. We are going to onstru t an innite
sequen e (fi ) of elements in A su h that lim fi = f .
For i = 0, take f0 = 0. Suppose that we have onstru ted the elements
f0 ; f1 ; : : : ; fn 1 of A su h that
mult(f fi ) i; i = 0; : : : ; n 1:
If mult(f fn 1 ) n, put fn = fn 1.
Suppose that mult(f fn 1 ) = n 1. If Gn 1 is the initial form of
f fn 1 , there exists an element hn 1 2 R, whose initial form is Gn 1 .
Dening
fn = fn 1 + hn 1 ;
1.3. HOMOMORPHISMS 13
it follows that fn 2 A is su h that

mult(f fn) = mult(f fn 1 hn 1 ) n:
In this way we have onstru ted a sequen e in A su h that lim fi = f ,
showing that A is dense in R.
2
In parti ular, we have that K [X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄ is dense in K [[X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄℄.
If r = s and if L1 ; : : : ; Lr are linear forms in R, linearly independent over
K , then T = SL1 ;:::;Lr is a K -isomorphism from S onto R.
Indeed, if
Li = ai;1 X1 + + ai;r Xr ; i = 1; : : : ; r;
and if M is the matrix (ai;j ), then T 1 = SL01 ;:::;L0r , where
L0 = bi;1 Y1 + + bi;r Yr ; i = 1; : : : ; r;
i
and (bi;j ) is the inverse matrix of (ai;j ).
Proposition 8 Suppose that r = s and let g1 ; : : : ; gr 2 R with initial forms,
L1 ; : : : ; Lr , K -linearly independent. Then Sg1;:::;gr is a K -isomorphism from
S onto R.
Proof: We are going initially to prove that Sg1 ;:::;gr is inje tive.
Noti e that if 0 6= f = Pn + Pn+1 + , with ea h Pi a homogeneous
polynomial of degree i and Pn 6= 0, then the initial term of Sg1 ;:::;gr (f ) is
SL1 ;:::;Lr (Pn ). Indeed, it suÆ es to note that this last element is non-zero
be ause
0 6= Pn = SL11;:::;Lr (SL1 ;:::;Lr (Pn )) :
From this it follows immediately that
mult (Sg1 ;:::;gr (f )) = mult(f ); (1.3)
implying the inje tivity of Sg1 ;:::;gr .
We are going now to prove that Sg1 ;:::;gr is surje tive. For this, it is
enough to prove that its image A = K [[g1 ; : : : ; gr ℄℄ is losed and dense in R.
Let P 2 K [Y1 ; : : : ; Ys ℄ be an arbitrary homogeneous polynomial. Con-
sider
Q = SL11;:::;Lr (P ) 2 R;
then P = SL1 ;:::;Lr (Q) is the initial form of Sg1 ;:::;gr (Q) 2 A, whi h in view
of Lemma 1 implies that A is dense in R.
We will prove now that A is losed in R. Let h 2 R be su h that
h = lim fi (g1 ; : : : ; gr );
i
where fi 2 R. We must prove that h 2 A.
From (1.3) and from the fa t that Sg1 ;:::;gr is a homomorphism, we have
that
mult(fi fj ) = mult (Sg1 ;:::;gr (fi ) Sg1 ;:::;gr (fj )) ;
hen e (fi ) is a Cau hy sequen e in R and therefore there exists f 2 R su h
that
f = lim fi : i
Sin e Sg1;:::;gr is ontinuous (see Proposition 7(ii), or Problem 2.4(b)), it
follows that

h = lim f (g ; : : : ; gr ) = Sg1 ;:::;gr lim
i i 1
f = Sg1 ;:::;gr (f ) 2 A:
i i
2
Problems
3.1) Let T : S ! R be a homomorphism of K -algebras. Show that T

is ompletely determined by the elements T (Y1 ); : : : ; T (Ys ), and that for all
f (Y1 ; : : : ; Ys ) 2 S , we have
T (f (Y1 ; : : : ; Ys )) = f (T (Y1 ); : : : ; T (Ys )):
3.2) Show that a K -endomorphism of R is an automorphism if and only if
it preserves multipli ities.
3.3) Let M be the maximal ideal of K [[X; Y ℄℄. Show that if h1 ; h2 2 M2 ,
and if g1 = aX + bY + h1 and g2 = X + dY + h2 , with ad b 6= 0, then
Sg1 ;g2 is a K -automorphism of K [[X; Y ℄℄.
1.4. THE LAURENT FIELD 15
1.4 The Laurent Field

Let K ((X )) be the eld of fra tions of the ring of formal power series in
one variable K [[X ℄℄. Given h = f=g 2 K ((X )) n f0g, sin e we may write
f = X n u and g = X m v, with n; m 2 IN and u and v units in K [[X ℄℄, we
have that
h = X n m uv 1 = X r w;
where r 2 ZZ and w is a unit in K [[X ℄℄.
This shows that any element h of K ((X )) is of the form
a m+a m+1 + + a 1 + a + a X + a X2 + ;
mX m+1 X 1X 0 1 2
where m 2 IN and the ai 's are elements of K . The elements of K ((X )) are
alled Laurent formal power series.
Given h 2 K ((X )), written as above, we dene the polar part of h as
being
}(h) = a m X m + a m+1 X m+1 + + a 1 X 1 :
We therefore have that h }(h) 2 K [[X ℄℄.
Writing an element h 2 K ((X )) n f0g as X r w, where r 2 ZZ and w is a
unit in K [[X ℄℄, then we dene the multipli ity of h as
mult(h) = r:
We also put mult(0) = 1.
As in the ase of K [[X ℄℄ we dene the distan e between two elements h
and k in K ((X )) as
d(h; k) = mult(h k) ;
where is a real number greater than one. Remark that
d(h; k) < 1 () }(h) = }(k):
It an be proved, in the same way as in Proposition 5, that (K ((X )); d)
is a omplete metri spa e.
Let F = fh ; 2 g be a family of elements in K ((X )), we dene
F + = fh }(h ); 2 g K [[X ℄℄:
We will say that the family F is summable in K ((X )) if F + is summable
in K [[X ℄℄ and }(h ) = 0, ex ept possibly for nitely many 's. We then have
a result analogous to that of Proposition 6 on erning sums and produ ts of
summable families.
Proposition 9 Given a K -endomorphism T of K ((X )), we have that T (X ) 2

K [X ℄, with T (0) = 0.
Proof: Let T (X ) = X r w(X ). We must have r > 0, be ause other-
wise T (XP+ X 2 + X 3 + ) wouldn't be dened. On
P the otheri hand, if
w(X ) = i2IN ai X 2 K [[X ℄℄ n K [X ℄, then T (X ) = i2IN ai X wouldn't
i 1
be dened.
2
Corollary If T is an automorphism of K ((X )), then T (X ) = aX for
some a 2 K n f0g.
Proof: If T is an automorphism, then T (X ) = P (X ) 2 K [X ℄, with
P (0) = 0. On the other hand, we have that T 1 (X ) = Q(X ) 2 K [X ℄,
so that
X = P (Q(X )) = Q(P (X )):
It then follows that P (X ) is an automorphism of K and onsequently
it is a linear polynomial. Sin e P (0) = 0, we must have P (X ) = aX with
a 2 K n f0g.
2
Problems
4.1) Show that (K ((X )); d) is a omplete metri spa e. Show the analog of
Proposition 6 for K ((X )).
4.2) Let T be an endomorphism of K ((X )).
a) Show that T (K [[X ℄℄) K [[X ℄℄.
b) Show that T (MiK [[X ℄℄) MiK [[X ℄℄, for all i 2 IN.
) Show that T is ontinuous.
d) Show that T (X ) determines T .
1.5. HENSEL'S LEMMA 17
1.5 Hensel's Lemma

In this se tion we will establish an important redu ibility riterion in K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄,
where K is a eld and X and Y are indeterminates. For onvenien e we will
dene the degree of the zero polynomial as 1.
Lemma 2 Let p and q be two non- onstant relatively prime polynomials in
K [Y ℄ of degrees respe tively r and s. Given a polynomial F in K [Y ℄, of
degree less than r + s, there exist two uniquely determined polynomials g; h 2
K [Y ℄, with deg h < r and deg g < s, su h that
F = gp + hq:
Proof: Sin e p and q are relatively prime in K [Y ℄, their GCD is 1 and
onsequently there exist polynomials '; 2 K [Y ℄ su h that 1 = 'p + q.
Therefore, we have
F = F 'p + F q: (1.4)
From the division algorithm, we have
F = p + h; (1.5)
where ; h 2 K [Y ℄ and deg h < deg p = r.
If we substitute (1.5) in (1.4), putting g = F ' + q, we get that F =
gp + hq. Sin e deg p = r, we have
deg g + deg p = deg gp = deg(F hq) < r + s;
it follows that deg g < s.
Uniqueness: Suppose that gp + hq = g0 p + h0 q, with h and h0 su h that
deg h; deg h0 < r, and g and g0 su h that deg g; deg g0 < s.
Therefore, (g g0 )p = (h0 h)q. Sin e p and q are relatively prime, it
follows that p divides h0 h. For degree reasons, this implies that h0 h = 0,
whi h in turn implies that g g0 = 0.
2
Theorem 1 (Hensel's Lemma) Let f 2 K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄ be moni and su h that
f (0; Y ) = p(Y )q(Y ), where p(Y ); q(Y ) 2 K [Y ℄ are relatively prime and non-
onstant, of degrees respe tively r and s. Then there exist two uniquely
determined polynomials g; h 2 K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄, of degrees respe tively r and s,
su h that f = gh, with g(0; Y ) = p(Y ), and h(0; Y ) = q(Y ).
Proof: If n = degY f , sin e f is moni , then n = deg f (0; Y ) = r + s.

Let us write
f = f0 (Y ) + Xf1 (Y ) + X 2 f2 (Y ) + ;
where f0 (Y ) = f (0; Y ) has degree n and ea h fi(Y ), i 1, if not zero, is a
polynomial in K [Y ℄ of degree less than n.
We wish to determine
g(X; Y ) = p(Y ) + Xg1 (Y ) + X 2 g2 (Y ) + ;
and
h(X; Y ) = q(Y ) + Xh1 (Y ) + X 2 h2 (Y ) + ;
where the gi (Y )0 s, i 1, are zero or have degrees less than r and the hi (Y )0 s,
i 1, are zero or have degrees less than s, and are su h that
f = gh: (1.6)
From (1.6) it follows, for i 1, that
fi (Y ) = p(Y )hi (Y ) + g1 (Y )hi 1 (Y ) + + gi (Y )q(Y ): (1.7)
We may now solve the equation (1.7) in the gi (Y ) and hi (Y ), re ur-
sively. Indeed, suppose that we have determined gj (Y ) and hj (Y ) of degrees
respe tively less than s and r, for all j i 1, then from (1.7), we get
p(Y )hi (Y ) + q(Y )gi (Y ) = fi (Y ) g1 (Y )hi 1 (Y ) gi 1(Y )h1 (Y );
whi h in virtue of Lemma 2 may be solved in a unique way in gi (Y ) and
hi (Y ) of degrees respe tively less than s and r, if non-zero.
2
The proof we gave for Hensel's Lemma is onstru tive sin e it is possible
to determine the series g and h step by step.
Corollary Let K be an algebrai ally losed eld and u = u(X ) a unit
in K [[X ℄℄. If n is a positive integer whi h is not a multiple of har(K ), then
there exists an invertible element v in K [[X ℄℄ su h that u = vn .
Proof: Sin e u is invertible we have that u(0) 6= 0. Dening
f (X; Y ) = Y n u(X ) 2 K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄;
1.5. HENSEL'S LEMMA 19
we have that n
Y
f (0; Y ) = Y n u(0) = (Y ai );
i=1
where the ai , i = 1; : : : ; n, are the nth roots of u(0) (all distin t, from the
hypothesis on har(K )). From Hensel's Lemma, there exist g1 ; : : : ; gn 2
K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄ su h that gi (Y; 0) = Y ai , and
f = g1 gn :
Sin e the degree of f as a polynomial in Y is n, it follows that the degree
of ea h gi in Y is 1, and onsequently, gi = Y ai (X ), where ai (0) = ai 6= 0.
Sin e g1 (X; a1 (X )) = 0, it follows that f (X; a1 (X )) = 0, and therefore,
u = (a1 (X ))n :
The result follows taking v = a1 (X ).
2
Problems
5.1) Find the three initial terms of an element v 2 C[[

I X ℄℄ su h that v3 =
1 + X.
5.2) De ide whether ea h one of the following polynomials is redu ible or
I X ℄℄[Y ℄.
irredu ible in C[[
i) f = X 2Y + X 3 + Y 5 + X 2 Y 3 ,
ii) g = Y XY Y 2 + X 2 Y 3 ,
iii) h = Y 5 + X 2 Y 4 3XY 3 + 2X 7 Y 2 X 5 Y + 8X .
I X; Y ℄℄?
Any of these series is redu ible in C[[
5.3) Let K be an algebrai ally losed eld and T an indeterminate over K .
Show that if (T ) 2 K [[T ℄℄ with r := mult( (T )) not a multiple of har(K ),
then there exists an automorphism of K [[T ℄℄ su h that ( (T )) = T r .
Chapter 2
THE PREPARATION
THEOREM
In this hapter we will ontinue to fo us on the algebrai properties of the
rings of formal power series. Our main goal will be to present a proof of the
Weierstrass Preparation Theorem and some of its many onsequen es.
2.1 The Division Theorem

In what follows we ontinue to denote by R the ring K [[X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄℄ and by
MR its maximal ideal.
Definition We will say that f 2 R is regular of order m, with respe t to
the indeterminate Xj , if f (0; : : : ; Xj ; : : : ; 0) is divisible exa tly by Xjm .
We say shortly that f is regular in Xj when f is regular with respe t to
Xj of order n = mult(f ). In this ase,
mult(f ) = mult (f (0; : : : ; Xj ; : : : ; 0)) :
The following result is a dire t onsequen e of the denitions.
Lemma 1 Given f; g 2 R, then f g is regular with respe t to Xj of a ertain
order, if and only if, f and g are regular with respe t to Xj , of some orders.
The following theorem, proved by Sti kelberger in 1887, will play a fun-
damental role in the theory of singularities. This theorem, inspired in the
Weierstrass Preparation Theorem of 1860, has as a orollary the Preparation
Theorem itself.
21
22 CHAPTER 2. THE PREPARATION THEOREM
We will denote in what follows by R0 the ring K [[X1 ; : : : ; Xr 1 ℄℄ and by

MR0 its maximal ideal.
Theorem 1 (The Division Theorem) Let F 2 MR R, regular of or-
der m with respe t to Xr . Given any G 2 R, there exist Q 2 R and
R 2 R0 [Xr ℄ with R = 0 or degXr (R) < m, uniquely determined by F and G,
su h that
G = F Q + R:
P1
Proof: Write G = i
i=0 Ai Xr as an element of R0[[Xr ℄℄, and let
mX1
R 1= Ai Xri :
i=0
To prove the theorem, we are going to onstru t re ursively polynomials
qi ; Ri , i 0, in K [X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄, not ne essarily homogeneous, with Ri = 0 or
degXr Ri < m, for all i, su h that mult(qi ) i and mult(Ri ) 1 + i, in su h
a way that if we put Q = q0 + q1 + , and R = R 1 + R0 + R1 + , we will
have G = F Q + R. The uniqueness of Q and R will follow from our pro ess
of onstru tion of the polynomials qi ; Ri , i 0.
Write now F as a sum of homogeneous polynomials:
F = Fn + + Fm + Fm+1 + :
Sin e F is regular in Xr of order m, we have that
P = Fn + + Fm = Xrm + (terms in Xr of degree < m); (2.1)
where 2 K n f0g and, ne essarily,
1 n = mult(P ) m:
Write H = G R 1 as a sum of homogeneous polynomials:
G R 1 = H = Hm + Hm+1 +
Sin e P is the form (2.1), with 2 K n f0g, there exists a unique q0 2 K
su h that
degXr (Hm q0 P ) < m:
Note for future referen e that
(
q0 = 0; if Hm (0; : : : ; 0; Xr ) = 0; (2.2)
6= 0 if Hm(0; : : : ; 0; Xr ) 6= 0
2.1. THE DIVISION THEOREM 23
It is lear that mult(q0 ) 0 and that mult(R0 ) 1, where

R0 = Hm q0 P:
The leading oeÆ ient of P in Xr being invertible, and looking at P as
a polynomial in K [X1 ; : : : ; Xr 1 ℄[Xr ℄, by the division algorithm, there exists
a unique polynomial q1 2 K [X1 ; : : : ; Xr 1 ℄[Xr ℄ su h that
degXr (Hm+1 q0 Fm+1 q1 P ) < m:
It is lear that mult(q1 ) 1, be ause otherwise the above inequality
would be false. It then follows that mult(R1 ) 2, where
R1 = Hm+1 q0 Fm+1 q1 P:
By similar arguments as used above, there exists a unique polynomial
q2 2 K [X1 ; : : : ; Xr 1 ℄[Xr ℄ su h that
degXr (Hm+2 q0 Fm+2 q1 Fm+1 q2 P ) < m:
It is lear that mult(q2 ) 2, be ause otherwise the above inequality
would be false. It then follows that mult(R2 ) 3, where
R2 = Hm+2 q0 Fm+2 q1 Fm+1 q2 P:
In this way, we have onstru ted the sequen es q0 ; q1 ; : : : and R0 ; R1 ; : : :,
su h that
H F (q0 + q1 + ) = R0 + R1 + ;
and therefore,
G = F (q0 + q1 + ) + R 1 + R0 + R1 + ;
and the result follows dening Q = q0 + q1 + and R = R 1 + R0 + R1 + ,
whi h are well dened as elements of R.
2
Noti e that the proof we gave for the Division Theorem is onstru tive,
allowing to onstru t the series Q and R until any desired order.
Theorem 2 (Weierstrass Preparation Theorem) Let F 2 R be a gi-

ven series, regular with respe t to Xr of order m. Then there exist U 2 R
invertible and A1 ; : : : ; Am 2 MR0 , uniquely determined by F , su h that
F U = Xrm + A1 Xrm 1 + A2 Xrm 2 + + Am :

Moreover, if F is regular in Xr , that is, m = mult(F ), then mult(Ai ) i,
for i = 1; : : : ; m.
Proof: The proof of the existen e follows from the Division Theorem tak-
ing G = Xrm ; U = Q and A1 Xrm 1 + A2 Xrm 2 + + Am = R.
The fa t that U is invertible follows from (2.2) be ause in this ase q0 6= 0.
Sin e Xrm divides F , we must have A(0) = = Am (0) = 0.
Finally, if F is regular in Xr , then
mult(Xrm + A1 Xrm 1 + A2 Xrm 2 + + Am ) = mult(F U ) = mult(F ) = m;
and it follows that mult(Ai ) i, for all i = 1; : : : ; m.
The uniqueness follows immediately from the uniqueness in the Division
Theorem.
2
Corollary (The Impli it Fun tion Theorem) Let F be an element of R
F
su h that F (0; : : : ; 0) = 0 and (0; : : : ; 0) 6= 0. Then there exists
Xr
'(X1 ; : : : ; Xr 1 ) 2 MR0 ;
su h that
F (X1 ; : : : ; Xr 1 ; '(X1 ; : : : ; Xr 1 )) = 0
as an element of R0.
F
Proof: The ondition (0; : : : ; 0) 6= 0 is equivalent to say that F is
Xr
regular in Xr and of multipli ity 1, then from the Preparation Theorem
there exists a unit U 2 R su h that F U = Xr + A1 , with A1 2 MR0 .
The result now follows taking '(X1 ; : : : ; Xr 1 ) = A1 , and noting that
U (0; : : : ; 0) 6= 0.
2
2.1. THE DIVISION THEOREM 25
The ondition on F to be regular is not so restri tive as it may appear

at a rst glan e. Assuming K innite, we will show that after omposing F
with a linear automorphism of R, we may transform it into a regular series
in one of the indeterminates, hosen arbitrarily. In the ase of K nite, it
is not possible to guarantee the existen e of linear automorphisms, but it is
always possible to nd a K -automorphism of R that transforms F into a
regular series in one of the indeterminates1.
Lemma 2 Let K be an innite eld. Given a nite family F of non-zero ho-

mogeneous polynomials in K [Y1 ; : : : ; Yr ℄, there exists a linear transformation
T : K [X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄ ! K [Y1 ; : : : ; Yr ℄, su h that for every F 2 F , of degree
n, there exists F 2 K n f0g su h that
F (T (X1 ; : : : ; Xr )) = F Xrn + (terms of lower degree in Xr ) :
Proof: Sin e F is nite and K is innite, there exists (1 ; : : : ; r ) 2 K r
su h that (reader, verify this!)
F (1 ; : : : ; r ) 6= 0; 8F 2 F :
Using the transformation T dened by
0 1 0 10 1
Y1 1 0 0 1 X1
B Y2 C B 0 1 0 2 C B X2 C
B
B C
C B C B C
C=B
C
CB
C
B .. B .. .. .. .. .. B .. C;
. A . . . . . A . A
Yr 0 0 0 r Xr
with the i ; i = 1; : : : ; r, as above, we have that
Y1m1 Yrmr = (X1 + 1 Xr )m1 (Xr 1 + r 1 Xr )mr 1 (r Xr )mr
mr m1 ++mr + (terms of lower degree in X ):
= m 1 r Xr
1
r
Hen e, for every F 2 F , we have that
F (T (X1 ; : : : ; Xr )) = F (1 ; : : : ; r )Xrn + (terms of lower degree in Xr );
and the result follows taking F = F (1 ; : : : ; r ).
2
1 f. [ZS, Cor. Lemma 3, Ch VII, Vol 2℄
We get immediately from this the following orollary:

Corollary 1 Let K be an innite eld. Given a nite family F of non-
zero elements in R = K [[X1 ; : : : ; Xr ℄℄, there exists a linear automorphism T
of R su h that all the elements of FÆ T , are regular in the last indeterminate.
From the above orollary we obtain the following orollary of the Weier-
strass Preparation Theorem.
Corollary 2 Let F 2 R n f0g be of multipli ity n. There exist a K -
automorphism T of R, a unit U 2 R and A1 ; : : : ; An 2 R0 su h that
mult(Ai ) i, for i = 1; : : : ; n, and
T (F ) U = Xrn + A1 Xrn 1 + + An :
The \polynomial" Xrn + A1 Xrn 1 + A2 Xrn 2 + + An asso iated to F ,

after possibly a linear hange of oordinates, will be onsidered a preparation
of F for its study. The study of a polynomial is mu h simpler than the study
of a power series. More generally, given a nite number of non-invertible
series in R, we have seen that there exists a hange of oordinates that
allows to prepare simultaneously all these series.
Problems
1.1) Given f; g 2 R, show that f g is regular with respe t to Xj , if and
only if, f and g are regular with respe t to Xj .
2.2 Fa torization of Power Series

In the present se tion we will study the fa torization in the ring R.
Definition A pseudo-polynomial (resp. a Weierstrass polynomial ) in Xr
is a power series in R of the form
P (X1 ; : : : ; Xr ) = X n + A1 X n 1 + + An 2 R0 [Xr ℄;
r r
su h that n 1 and mult(Ai ) 1 (resp. mult(Ai ) i), for i = 1; : : : ; n.
Lemma 3 Let F1 ; : : : ; Fs be moni polynomials in R0 [Xr ℄. Then F1 Fs

is a pseudo-polynomial (resp. a Weierstrass polynomial) if and only if ea h
Fi ; i = 1; : : : ; s, is a pseudo-polynomial (resp. a Weierstrass polynomial).
2.2. FACTORIZATION OF POWER SERIES 27
Proof: It suÆ es to prove the result for s = 2.

Let F1 = Xrm + A1 Xrm 1 + + Am and F2 = Xrn + B1 Xrn 1 + + Bn ,
then
F1 F2 = Xrm+n + (A1 + B1 )Xrm+n 1 + +
(Ai + Ai 1 B1 + + A1 Bi 1 + Bi )Xrm+n i + + Am Bn : (2.3)
If F1 and F2 are pseudo-polynomials (resp. Weierstrass polynomials),
then
mult(Ai + Ai 1 B1 + + A1 Bi 1 + Bi ) 1 (resp. i);
whi h proves that F1 F2 is a pseudo-polynomial (resp. Weierstrass polyno-
mial).
Conversely, suppose that F1 F2 is a Weierstrass polynomial, we have
from (2.3) that
mult(F1 )+mult(F2 ) = mult(F1 F2 ) = mult((F1 F2 )(0; : : : ; 0; Xr )) = m + n:
Sin e mult(F1 ) m, mult(F2 ) n, it follows from the above equality
that mult(F1 ) = m and mult(F2 ) = n. This, in parti ular, implies that F1
and F2 are Weierstrass polynomials be ause otherwise, mult(F1 ) < m or
mult(F2 ) < n.
2
Lemma 4 Let F 2 R0 [Xr ℄ be a pseudo-polynomial. Then F is redu ible in
R if and only if F is redu ible in R0[Xr ℄.
Proof: Suppose that F is redu ible in R, then there exist F1 ; F2 in R,
non unitary, su h that F = F1 F2 . Sin e F is a pseudo-polynomial, it is
regular of a ertain order with respe t to Xr , then from Lemma 1, we have
that F1 and F2 are regular of ertain orders greater or equal to 1. From the
Preparation Theorem, there exist units U1 ; U2 2 R su h that H1 = F1 U1
and H2 = U2 F2 are pseudo-polynomials of degrees greater or equal to 1.
Putting U = U1 U2 , we have that U is invertible and
F U = (F1 U1 )(F2 U2 ) = H1 H2 :
Sin e H1 and H2 are pseudo-polynomials, we have from Lemma 3 that
F U is a pseudo-polynomial. Sin e we also have F 1 = F , with F a pseudo-
polynomial, from the uniqueness in the Preparation Theorem it follows that
F = H1 H2 , that is, F is redu ible in R0 [Xr ℄.
Conversely, suppose that F 2 R0 [Xr ℄ is a redu ible pseudo-polynomial

of degree d. Then there exist H1 and H2 , moni s of degrees respe tively m
and n, in R0 [Xr ℄ su h that
F = H1 H2 ;
with m; n 1 and m + n = d. Sin e from Lemma 3, H1 and H2 are pseudo-
polynomials of degrees greater or equal to 1, it follows that they are not
invertible in R. Then F is redu ible in R.
2
Theorem 3 The ring R is a unique fa torization domain.
Proof: We will prove, by indu tion on r , that every irredu ible element
of R is prime.
The ring K [[X ℄℄ is a unique fa torization domain (see Problem 1.1.4).
Suppose now, by indu tion hypothesis, that R0 is a unique fa torization
domain. Let F; G; H 2 R with F irredu ible and F j G H , we want to
show that F j G or F j H . If G or H is invertible in R, the result follows
immediately. Suppose that G and H are not invertible in R, then from the
Preparation Theorem, hanging oordinates if ne essary, we have that F; G
and H are asso iated in R to Weierstrass polynomials. We then may assume
that F; G and H are Weierstrass polynomials and therefore from Lemma 4,
F is irredu ible in R0 [Xr ℄, hen e prime be ause this last ring is a unique
fa torization domain (Gauss' Lemma). Therefore from F j G H , it follows
that F j G or F j H .
2
Corollary Suppose that F 2 R0 [Xr ℄ is a pseudo-polynomial (resp. a
Weierstrass polynomial) with respe t to the indeterminate Xr . If F = F1 Fs
is the de omposition of F into irredu ible fa tors in R, then we may hoose
a de omposition where ea h Fi is a pseudo-polynomial (resp. a Weierstrass
polynomial).
Proof: From Theorem 3 and Gauss' Lemma we have that R0 [Xr ℄ is a
unique fa torization domain. Let F = F1 Fs be a de omposition of F into
irredu ible fa tors in R0 [Xr ℄, whi h by Lemma 4 is also a de omposition into
irredu ible fa tors in R. Sin e F is moni , we may suppose that the Fi 's are
moni . The result now follows from Lemma 3.
2

2.3. HILBERT-RUCKERT BASIS THEOREM 29
2.3 Hilbert-R
u kert Basis Theorem
The ring A will be alled noetherian if every ideal in A is nitely generated.
The following theorem is fundamental 2 .
Theorem 4 (Hilbert's Basis Theorem) If A is a noetherian ring, then
A[X ℄ is noetherian.
Proof: Let f = an X n + an 1 X n 1 + + a0 2 A[X ℄. We will all the
term an X n the leading term of f and the element an the leading oeÆ ient
of f .
Let I be an ideal in A[X ℄. We want to show that I is nitely generated.
Choose an element f1 of I of minimal degree. If I = hf1 i, the result
is proved. If not, hoose an element f2 2 I n hf1 i of minimal degree. If
I = hf1 ; f2 i, the result follows. If not, hoose an element f3 2 I n hf1 ; f2 i
of minimal degree. If I = hf1 ; f2 ; f3 i, the result follows. If not, we ontinue
with this pro edure. We will show that this pro edure must stop after nitely
many steps.
Let J be the ideal in A generated by the leading oeÆ ients ai of the
fi 's we have hosen above. Sin e A is noetherian, we may suppose that
J = ha1 ; : : : ; am i, for some m. We are going to prove that I = hf1 ; : : : ; fm i.
Suppose by absurd that I 6= hf1 ; : : : ; fm i. Consider the element fm+1 2
I n hf1 ; : :P: ; fm i, whi h we know to be of minimal degree. We then have that
am+1 = m i=1 i ai , for i 2 A. By onstru tion
deg(fm+1 ) deg(fi ); i = 1; : : : ; m:
Then we have that
m
X
g= i fi X deg(fm+1 ) deg(fi ) 2 hf1 ; : : : ; fm i:
i=1
Sin e the leading term of g is equal to that of fm+1 , it follows that the
degree of fm+1 g is smaller than that of fm+1 and at the same time,
fm+1 g 2 I n hf1 ; : : : ; fm i;
2
2 This se tion may be omitted in a rst reading.
The Hilbert Basis Theorem, together with the Division Theorem, allow
to prove the following result.
kert's Basis Theorem) The ring
Theorem 5 (Ru R is noetherian.
Proof: The proof will be done by indu tion on the number of indetermi-
nates r. If r = 1, the result follows from Problem 1.1.4.
Suppose that r 2 and that R0 is noetherian. Let I R be a non-
zero ideal and let G 2 I n f0g be any element. After oordinates hange, if
ne essary, we may suppose that G is regular with respe t to Xr , sin e the
property to be proved is invariant by K -automorphisms of R.
Sin e R0 is noetherian, by Hilbert's Basis Theorem, R0 [Xr ℄ is also noethe-
rian. Therefore, there exist G1; : : : ; Gm 2 R su h that
I \ R0 [Xr ℄ = hG1 ; : : : ; Gm i:
Let F 2 I . From the Division Theorem, we may write
F = gG + R; g 2 R; R 2 R0 [Xr ℄: (2.4)
Sin e F; G 2 I , it follows that R 2 I \ R0 [Xr ℄. Therefore, there exist
g1 ; : : : ; gm 2 R0 [Xr ℄ R su h that
R = g1 G1 + + gm Gm ;
and therefore from (2.4), it follows that
F = gG + g1 G1 + + gm Gm ;
whi h shows that
I = hG; G1 ; : : : ; Gm i:
2
2.4. ELIMINATION 31
2.4 Elimination
Let A be a unique fa torization domain, and let
f = a0 Y n + a1 Y n 1 + + an ;
and
g = b0 Y m + b1 Y m 1 + + bm ;
be two polynomials in A[Y ℄. We want to determine a riterion to de ide
when f and g have a non- onstant ommon fa tor in A[Y ℄. An obje t that
will play an important role to answer this question is the resultant of f and
g whi h is the element of A dened as follows:
0 1
a0 a1 : : : : : an 0 : 0
B 0 a0 : : : : : : an : 0 C
B
B C
B
B : : : : : : : : : : : CC
C
B 0 : : a0 : : : : : : an C
RY (f; g) = det B
B b0 b1 : : bm 0 : : : : 0 C
C
B
B C
B
B
0 b0 : : : bm : : : : 0 CC
: : : : : : : : : : : CA
0 : : : : : b0 : : : bm
If we onsider the ai 's and the bj 's as indeterminates, we have that
RY (f; g) is a bi-homogeneous polynomial of degree m in the ai 's and of de-
gree n in the bj 's. Observe also that in the development of the determinant
we have the monomial am n
0 bm orresponding to the prin ipal diagonal.
Lemma 5 The polynomials f and g in A[Y ℄ admit a non- onstant ommon
fa tor if and only if there exist non-zero polynomials p; q 2 A[Y ℄, of degrees
respe tively less than the degrees of f and g, su h that
qf = pg: (2.5)
Proof: Indeed, if f and g have a non- onstant ommon fa tor h, then
f = ph and g = qh. Consequently (2.5) follows immediately.
Conversely, suppose that (2.5) is true with deg(p) < deg(f ) and deg(q) <
deg(g). If f and g don't have any non- onstant ommon fa tor, then sin e
A[Y ℄ is fa torial, we have that f divides p, and therefore, deg(f ) deg(p),
a ontradi tion be ause deg(p) < deg(f ).
2
Proposition 1 Consider the polynomials f = a0 Y n + a1 Y n 1 + + an

and g = b0 Y m + b1 Y m 1 + + bm in A[Y ℄ n A. Then RY (f; g) = 0, if and
only if, a0 = b0 = 0 or f and g have a non- onstant ommon fa tor in A[Y ℄.
Proof: If a0 = b0 = 0, it is lear that RY (f; g) = 0. Suppose now that
a0 6= 0 or b0 6= 0, say a0 6= 0. It will be suÆ ient to prove that RY (f; g) = 0
if and only if f and g have a non- onstant ommon fa tor.
From Lemma 5, f and g admit a non- onstant ommon fa tor if and only
if there exist p; q 2 A[Y ℄ with deg(p) < deg(f ) and deg(q) < deg(g) su h
that
qf = pg:
On the other hand, the above ondition is equivalent to say that the
polynomials
Y m 1 f; Y m 2 f; : : : ; Y f; f; Y n 1 g; : : : ; Y g; g;
are linearly dependent over the eld of fra tions F of A. Writing the above
polynomials as ve tors in F n+m , the determinant of the matrix whose rows
are these ve tors is pre isely RY (f; g). Therefore the result follows immedi-
ately.
2
Corollary 1 let P; Q 2 R[Y ℄ be pseudo-polynomials with respe t to the
indeterminate Y . The series P and Q admit a non-unitary ommon fa tor
in R[[Y ℄℄ if and only if RY (P; Q) = 0.
Proof: From the Corollary of Theorem 3, P and Q admit a non-unitary
ommon fa tor in R[[Y ℄℄, if and only if they admit a non-unitary ommon
fa tor in R[Y ℄. The result then follows from the proposition.
2
Corollary 2 Let CI be the eld of omplex numbers and let A = CI fXg,
where X = (X1 ; : : : ; Xn 1 ). Let f = a0 (X)Y n + + an (X) and g =
b0 (X)Y m + + bm (X) be elements in CI fXg[Y ℄ and let U be a neighborhood
of 0 in CI n 1 , where the ai (X)'s and the bj (X)'s onverge absolutely in a
neighborhood of 0 2 CI n 1 . Denote by R(X) the resultant RY (f; g). We have
that R() = 0, where 2 U , if and only if, either a0 () = b0 () = 0, or
f (; Y ) and g(; Y ) admit a ommon root in CI .
The above orollary may be used to determine the points of interse tion
of two algebrai plane urves, as one may see for example in Problem 4.1.
2.4. ELIMINATION 33
Proposition 2 Let f; g 2 A[Y ℄ n A. Then there exist p; q 2 A[Y ℄, with

deg(p) < deg(f ) and deg(q) < deg(g), su h that
qf + pg = RY (f; g):
Proof: If f and g have a non- onstant ommon fa tor, the result follows
from Proposition 1 and from Lemma 5.
Suppose that f and g have no non- onstant ommon fa tor. Then from
Proposition 1, we have that RY (f; g) 6= 0. We may write
0 1 0 Y n+m 1 1 0
Y m 1f
1
a0 a1 : : : : : an 0 : 0 B C B C
B
B 0 a0 : : : : : : an : 0 C
C
B
B
Y n+m 2 C
C
B
B
Y m 2f C
C
B C B .. C B .. C
B
B : : : : : : : : : : : C
C
B
B . C
C
B
B . C
C
B
B 0 : : a0 : : : : : : an C
C B
B Yn C
C =
B
B f C
C
B
B b0 b1 : : bm 0 : : : : 0 C
C
B
B Yn 1 C
C
B
B Y n 1g C
C
B
B 0 b0 : : : bm : : : : 0 C
C B Yn 2 C B Y n 2g C
CB
C B C
B B .. C
C B .. C
: : : : : : : : : : : AB . A
B
. C
A
0 : : : : : b0 : : : bm 1 g
Applying Cramer's rule in the eld of fra tions of A, we have that
det M
= 1; (2.6)
RY (f; g)
where
0 1
a0 a1 : : : : : an 0 : ym 1 f
B 0 a0 : : : : : : an : ym 2 f C
B
B C
B
B : : : : : : : : : : : C C
C
B 0 : : a0 : : : : : : f C
M =B
B b0 b1 : : bm 0 : : : : yn 1 g C
C:
B
B C
B
B
0 b0 : : : bm : : : : yn 2 g CC
: : : : : : : : : : : C A
0 : : : : : b0 : : : g
Computing det M by expanding it with respe t to the last olumn and
alling Ai (respe tively, Bj ) the algebrai omplement of Y m i f (respe -
tively, of Y n j g), we have
det M = A1 Y m 1 f + A2 Y m 2 f + + Am f + B1 Y n 1 g + + Bn g =
(A1 Y m 1 + + Am )f + (B1 Y n 1 + + Bn )g:
The result now follows in view of (2.6), putting q = A1 Y m 1 + + Am ,

and p = B1 Y n 1 + + Bn.
2
Let X = (X1 ; : : : ; Xn ) and Y = (Y1 ; : : : ; Ym ) be two sets of indetermi-
nates and onsider the ring
R00 = A[X; Y℄ = A[X1 ; : : : ; Xn ; Y1; : : : ; Ym ℄:
Consider the polynomials
F = a0 (Y X1 ) (Y Xn ) 2 R00 [Y ℄;
and
G = b0 (Y Y1 ) (Y Ym ) 2 R00 [Y ℄:
The resultant RY (F; G) is therefore a polynomial in R00 .
Lemma 6 The polynomial RY (F; G) is homogeneous of degree nm in R00 .
Proof: We may write
0 1
1 S1 : : : : : Sn 0 : 0
B 0 1 : : : : : : Sn : 0 C
B
B C
C
B
B : : : : : : : : : : : C
C
B
n det B 0 : : 1 : : : : : : Sn C
RY (F; G)(X; Y) = am 0 0b B 1 S10 : : Sm0 0 : : : : 0 C
C
B C
B
B 0 1 : : : S 0 : : : : 0 C
B m C
: : : : : : : : : : : C A
0 : : : : : 1 : : : Sm0
where the Si 's and the Sj0 's are the elementary symmetri fun tion in the
indeterminates Xi 's and Yj 's, respe tively.
Substituting, in the above expression, Xi by T Xi and Yj by T Yj , where
T is a new indeterminate, we get
RY (F; G)(T X; T Y) =
0 1
1 T S1 : : : : : T n Sn 0 : 0
B 0 1 : : : : : : T n Sn : 0 C
B C
B C
B
B : : : : : : : : : : : C
C
B n
am b n det B 0 : : 1 : : : : : : T S n CC
0 0 B
B 1 T S10 : : T m Sm 0 0 : : : : 0 C C
B
B 0 1 : : : T mS0 : : : : 0 C
C
B m
: : : : : : : : : : : C A
0 : : : : : 1 : : : T m Sm0
2.4. ELIMINATION 35
Multiplying in the above determinant, the se ond row by T , the third

by T 2 , : : :, the mth by T m 1 , the (m + 2)th by T , : : :, the (m + n)th by
T m+n 1 , we get
T M RY (F; G)(T X; T Y) = T N RY (F; G)(X; Y);
where M = (1+ + m 1)+(1+ + n 1), and N = 1+ +(m + n 1),
from whi h the result follows trivially.
2
We will use the above lemma to prove the following result:
Proposition 3 Let f = a0 Y n + + an ; g = b0 Y m + + bm 2 K [Y ℄ n K ,
where K is a eld. Let E be a eld extension of K that ontains the roots
1 ; : : : ; n and 1 ; : : : ; m , respe tively of f and of g. We have that
n Y
Y m n
Y m
Y
RY (f; g) = am n
0 b0 (i j ) = am
0 g(i ) = ( 1)nm bn0 f (j ):
i=1 j =1 i=1 j =1
Proof: Consider the polynomials F; G and RY (F; G) as dened in Lemma
6. Put Xi = Yj . From Proposition 1, the polynomial RY (F; G) vanishes,
sin e F and G will have a non- onstant ommon fa tor. This implies that
RY (F; G), as a polynomial in R00 , is divisible by Xi Yj , for all i and j .
Sin e Xi Yj and Xr Ys, for (i; j ) 6= (r; s) are relatively prime, we have
that R(F; G) is divisible by
n Y
Y m
P = am n
0 b0 (Xi Yj );
i=1 j =1
whi h is a homogeneous polynomial in R00 of degree mn, and therefore of
the same degree as RY (F; G).
Note that the term of lower degree in RY (F; G) whi h only ontains
the indeterminates Y, is am 0n
0 S1 , that orresponds to the term given by the
prin ipal diagonal of the determinant.
From the expressions of F and G, it follows that
n
Y m
Y
P = am
0 g(Xi ) = ( 1)nm bn0 f (Yj ):
i=1 j =1
Qn
Note that the term of lower degree in P = am 0 i=1 g (Xi ), whi h only
ontains the indeterminates Y, is also am S 0n .
0 1
It then follows that

n Y
Y m n
Y m
Y
RY m
(F; G) = a b n (X Yj )=am g(X nm
1) b n f (Y
0 0 i 0 i) = ( 0 j ):
i=1 j =1 i=1 j =1
Substituting the indeterminates Xi by i and Yj by j , the result follows.

2
Definition Let P 2 A[Y ℄, and let PY be the derivative of P with respe t
to Y . We dene the dis riminant of P as
DY (P ) = RY (P; PY ):
From Corollary 1 of Proposition 1, we have that, if P 2 R[Y ℄ is a Weier-
strass polynomial whose de omposition in irredu ible fa tors in R[[Y ℄℄℄ is
P = P1n1 Prns ;
where the Pi 's are irredu ible and not asso iated in pairs, then
DY (P ) 6= 0 if and only if n1 = n2 = = ns = 1: (2.7)
In the ase in whi h n1 = = ns = 1, we say that P is redu ed. If
P = P1n1 Prns , as above, we dene the redu tion of P as
red(P ) = P1 Pr :
Proposition 4 Let f = a0 Y n + + an 2 K [Y ℄ n K , where K is a eld
that ontains the roots 1 ; : : : ; n of f . We have that
Y
DY (f ) = a20n 1 (i j )
i6=j
Q
Proof: Sin e fY (i ) = a0 j 6=i (i j ), the result follows from Proposi-
tion 3, be ause
n
Y Y
DY (f ) = RY (f; fY ) = ( 1)n(n 1) an0 1 fY (i ) = a20n 1 (i j ):
i=1 i6=j
2
2.4. ELIMINATION 37
Problems
4.1) Using resultants, solve the following system:

(
Y 3 Y 2 3X 2 Y X 2 = 0;
Y 3 Y 2 + 3X 2 = 0:
4.2) Let A be a domain and let f; g; h 2 A[Y ℄. Show that

RY (f; gh) = RY (f; g)RY (f; h):
Suggestion: Make the omputations in the algebrai losure of the eld of
fra tions of A and use Proposition 3.
4.3) Determine the dis riminant with respe t to X of
a) f = aX 2 + bX + b) f = X 3 + bX + .
Chapter 3
PLANE CURVES
In this hapter we will introdu e our main obje ts of study: algebroid irre-
du ible plane urves or plane bran hes. Although several results we prove
along these notes are valid over arbitrary algebrai ally losed base elds, we
will only fo us them in hara teristi zero, sin e we will systemati ally use
Newton-Puiseux parametrization that is only obtainable in this ontext.
3.1 Algebroid Plane Curves

As we mentioned in the introdu tion of these notes, the study of singularities
of an algebrai plane urve or an analyti urve in CI 2 , given lo ally by an
equation
f (X; Y ) = 0;
where f is a polynomial or an analyti fun tion in the neighborhood of the
origin, may be realized by studying the algebrai properties of f (X; Y ) as
an element of K [[X; Y ℄℄. This motivates the following denition:
Definition An algebroid plane urve (f ) is the equivalen e lass of a non-
invertible element f of K [[X; Y ℄℄ n f0g, modulo the relation of asso iates.
This means that

(f ) = fu f ; u is a unit in K [[X; Y ℄℄g:
Therefore, by denition, we have
(f ) = (g) () 9 a unit u 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ su h that g = u f
39
40 CHAPTER 3. PLANE CURVES
We will return, in the last se tion of this hapter, on the geometri al

motivations of these notions.
Sin e the multipli ity of a formal power series is left invariant when we
multiply it by a unit, we may dene the multipli ity of an algebroid plane
urve (f ) as being the multipli ity of f . An algebroid urve of multipli ity
one will be alled regular. When this multipli ity is greater than one, we
will say that the urve is singular.
Let (f ) be an algebroid plane urve. We say that the urve (f ) is ir-
redu ible if the formal power series f is irredu ible in K [[X; Y ℄℄. Note that
this notion is independent of the representative f of (f ). An irredu ible
algebroid plane urve will also be alled a bran h.
Let (f ) be an algebroid plane urve and onsider the de omposition of f
into irredu ible fa tors in K [[X; Y ℄℄,
f = f1 f2 fr :
The algebroid plane urves (fj ), for j = 1; : : : ; r, above dened, are
alled the bran hes of the urve (f ). The urve (f ) will be alled redu ed, if
(fi ) 6= (fj ) for i 6= j , that is, when fi and fj are not asso iated if i 6= j .
Several properties of an algebroid plane urve are preserved after we
hange oordinates in K [[X; Y ℄℄ through a K -automorphism. This motivates
the next fundamental denition.
Definition Two algebroid plane urves (f ) and (g ) will be said equiva-
lent, writing in su h ase (f ) (g), if there exists a K -automorphism of
K [[X; Y ℄℄ su h that
((f )) = (g):
In other words, (f ) and (g) are equivalent, if there exist a K -automorphism
and a unit u of K [[X; Y ℄℄ su h that
(f ) = u g:
In what follows we will be on erned with the properties of irredu ible
algebroid plane urves whi h are invariant modulo the equivalen e relation .
For instan e, the redu ible or irredu ible hara ter of a urve, its multipli ity,
among several other properties, are preserved by equivalen e of urves.
Sin e any urve is equivalent to a Weierstrass polynomial (see Corollary
2 after Lemma 2.2), under this point of view, we may suppose that the urve
is given by a Weierstrass polynomial.
3.1. ALGEBROID PLANE CURVES 41
Con erning regular urves, we have the following result:

Proposition 1 If (f ) and (g ) are two regular urves, then (f ) (g ).
Proof: Sin e mult(f ) = 1, it follows that f = aX + bY + , with a 6= 0 or

b 6= 0. If a 6= 0, we may onsider the K -automorphism dened as follows:
: K [[X; Y ℄℄ ! K [[X; Y ℄℄;
X 7! f
Y 7 ! Y
that tells us that (f ) (X ). If instead, b =
6 0 we get analogously that
(f ) (Y ). The same being true for (g), and sin e (X ) (Y ), we get that
(f ) (g).
2
It is a entral problem in this theory, and still an open one, to perform
the lassi ation of algebroid plane urves modulo the equivalen e relation
and at the time being there is no known eÆ ient algorithm that allows to
de ide if two urves are or aren't equivalent.
Just to have a feeling on how this question an be diÆ ult to answer,
onsider the following algebroid urves:
f =Y2 X 3;
and
g = ( X 3 6X 2 12X 8)Y 3 + ( 3X 3 12X 2 12X + 9)Y 2 +
( 3X 3 6X 2 12X )Y X 3 + 4X 2 :
Are these urves equivalent or not? It is not easy to answer to this
questions a priori sin e the urves have two dierent equations. The only
thing we an easily observe is that the two urves have the same multipli ity.
Well, the series g was hosen in order that
(f ) = g;
where
(X; Y ) = (X + 2Y + XY; 2X 3Y );
and therefore, f g.
Suppose now that (f ) is an algebroid plane urve of multipli ity n, then

f = Fn + Fn+1 + ;
where ea h Fi is a homogeneous polynomial in K [X; Y ℄ of degree i and
Fn 6= 0. We all the urve (Fn ) the tangent one of the urve (f ).
Sin e any homogeneous polynomial in two indeterminates with oeÆ-
ients in an algebrai ally losed eld de omposes into linear fa tors (see
problem 1.1 at the end of the se tion), we may write
s
Y
Fn = (ai X + bi Y )ri ;
i=1
P
where si=1 ri = n, ai ; bj 2 K , for i; j = 1; : : : ; s, and ai bj aj bi 6= 0, if i 6= j .
So the tangent one of (f ) onsists of the linear forms (lines) (ai X + bi Y ),
i = 1; : : : ; s, ea h taken with multipli ity ri , alled the tangent lines of (f ).
If the urve (f ) is of multipli ity 1, that is if (f ) is regular, then its
tangent one (F1 ) onsists of one tangent line taken with multipli ity one.
Example 1 The tangent one to the urve (Y 2 X 3 ) is the line (Y ),
ounted with multipli ity 2, while the tangent one to the urve (Y 2
X 2 (X + 1)) onsists of the two lines (Y + X ) and (Y X ), ea h ounted
with multipli ity 1. The urve (Y X 2 ) is regular and its tangent line is
(Y ).
Problems
1.1) Show that if K is an algebrai ally losed eld, then any homogeneous
polynomial in two indeterminates with oeÆ ients in K de omposes into a
produ t of linear fa tors.
1.2) Let a; b; ; d 2 K . Show that (aX + bY ) = ( X + dY ) if and only if
ad b = 0.
1.3) Let f; g 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ with initial forms respe tively Fn and Gm . Show
that if (f ) (g), then n = m and (Fn ) (Gn ).
1.4) Let (f ) be a regular urve.
a) Show that (f ) is irredu ible.
b) Show that the tangent line to (f ) is given by (XfX (0; 0) + Y fY (0; 0)).
3.2. NEWTON-PUISEUX THEOREM 43
3.2 Newton-Puiseux Theorem

The te hnique of fra tional power series expansions, without any on ern
about onvergen e questions, was used by Newton to study singular points
of urves. In 1850, Puiseux in [P℄, vindi ated Newton's method putting it
into the ontext of fun tions of one omplex variable, proving in this way the
onvergen e of the series that appear. We will adopt here essentially New-
ton's point of view, pla ing ourselves in the framework of formal geometry
and not bother about onvergen e of series.
Sin e any urve is equivalent to a urve dened by a Weierstrass poly-
nomial in K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄, it is of great utility to determine the roots of this
polynomial in the algebrai losure of K ((X )). This is the strategy we
will use to study algebroid irredu ible plane urves. For this purpose we
will hara terize, only when har(K ) = 0, the algebrai losure K ((X )) of
K ((X )).
From now on, in this hapter, we will assume that har(K ) = 0.
We have seen in Chapter 1 that K ((X )) is the set of formal Laurent
series with oeÆ ients in K , that is, the formal series of the form
m+1 + + b
0 + b1 X + b2 X + :
b m +b 2
mX m+1 X
Clearly K ((X )) must ontain the roots of the equations Y n X = 0, for
1
all positive integer n, hen e it must ontain the elements of the form X n ,
subje t1 to relations of the type:
i) X 1 m= X , m
ii) (X rn )r = X n ; 8n; m; r 2 ZZ and n; r > 0.
1
In this way, we obtain extensions K ((X n )) of K ((X )) whi h are nite
and galoisian, as we will show next.
Re all the following denition from eld theory.
Definition Let F=k be a eld extension. If the group
G(F=k) = f : F ! F j is a k-automorphism g;
is nite and its xed eld is k, that is,
fa 2 F j (a) = a; for all 2 G(F=k)g = k;
then the extension is alled galoisian and G(F=k) is its Galois group .
We denote by Un the multipli ative group of the nth roots of unity in K .
This is a y li group be ause it is a subgroup of the multipli ative group
of a eld and has order n sin e the polynomial X n 1 is separable over K

(re all that K is algebrai ally losed of hara teristi zero).
1
Sin e K ((X n )) is K -isomorphi to K ((X )), we have from the Corollary
1
of Proposition 1.9 that any K -automorphism of K ((X n )) is su h that
1 1
(X n ) = bX n , for some b 2 K n f0g.
1
Lemma 1 The eld extension K ((X n ))=K ((X )) is nite and galoisian with
Galois group isomorphi to the group Un .
1
Proof: Put G = G(K ((X n ))=K ((X ))), and let 2 G. Sin e is a
K ((X ))-automorphism, for some b 2 K n f0g, we must have
1 1
(X n ) = b X n ;
and that 1 1
bn X = ((X n ))n = ((X n )n ) = (X ) = X:
Hen e bn = 1 and therefore b 2 Un .
The mapping h : G ! Un dened by h() = b is a group isomorphism.
Indeed, if 2 G, then
1 1 1 1 1
bÆ X n = Æ (X n ) = (b X n ) = b (X n ) = b b X n ;
then bÆ = b b and therefore h is a group homomorphism.
Suppose now that b = b . Sin e
X i X i X i X i
( bi X n ) = bi bi X n = bi bi X n = ( bi X n );
it follows that = and therefore h is inje tive. It is lear from the denition
of that h is surje tive. Hen e G is isomorphi to Un .
We will now prove that the xed eld of G is pre isely K ((X )). Suppose
P 1
that ii0 bi X n 2 K ((X n )) is invariant by the a tion of the elements of G,
i
that is, for all 2 Un we have that

X i X i
bi X n = bi i X n :
ii0 ii0
Hen e bi = bi i for all i i0 . If is a primitive root then bi = 0 for all i not

P
divisible by n, hen e ii0 bi X n 2 K ((X )), whi h on ludes the proof.
i
2
1
The above lemma also shows that the elds K ((X n )) are all ontained
in K ((X )). Hen e we may dene
1
[ 1
K ((X )) = K ((X n )) K ((X )):
n=1
It is lear that the elements of K ((X )) may be written in the form
p1 p2
= b1 X q1 + b2 X q2 + ; (3.1)
with b1 ; b2 ; : : : 2 K , pi; qi 2 ZZ, qi > 0, for all i, and pq11 < pq22 < ; where
the set f pqii ; i 2 IN n f0gg admits a ommon denominator.
If b1 6= 0, then the rational number pq11 is alled the multipli ity of and
will be denoted by mult(). It is lear that given ; 2 K ((X )) , we have
that
mult( ) = mult() + mult( );
and that
mult( ) minfmult(); mult( )g;
with equality holding whenever mult() 6= mult( ).
For ommodity, we dene
mult(0) = 1:
We also dene 1
[ 1
K [[X ℄℄ = K [[X n ℄℄:
n=1
Therefore, any element of K [[X ℄℄ is of the form (3.1) with mult() 0.
Lemma 2 K ((X )) is a subeld of K ((X )).
Proof: If f; g 2 K ((X )) , then there exist r; s 2 IN su h that f

1 1 1
2 K ((X1 1r ))
1
and g 2 K ((X s )). Sin e K ((X r )) K ((X rs )) and K ((X s )) K ((X rs )),
1
we have that f + g, f g and fg (if g 6= 0) are in K ((X rs )) K ((X )) .
2
The next theorem will play a fundamental role in the theory of plane
urves in hara teristi zero.
Theorem 1 (Newton-Puiseux) We have that K ((X )) = K ((X )) .
Proof: Sin e every element of K ((X )) is algebrai over K ((X )), it is
enough to prove that K ((X )) is algebrai ally losed. For this, it is suÆ ient
to show that every polynomial in K ((X )) [Y ℄ of degree greater or equal to
2 is redu ible.
Let
p(X; Y ) = a0 (X )Y n + a1 (X )Y n 1 + + an (X ) 2 K ((X )) [Y ℄;
with n 2 and a0 (X ) 6= 0. We may, without loss of generality, suppose that
a0 (X ) = 1.
We will use a well known hange of variables to eliminate in p(X; Y ) the
term of degree n 1. This is done onsidering the K ((X )) -isomorphism
: K ((X )) [Y ℄ ! K ((X )) [Z ℄;
Y 7 Z n 1 a1 (X )
!
and taking
q(X; Z ) = (p(X; Y )) = p(X; Z n 1 a1 (X )) = Z n +b2 (X )Z n 2 + +bn(X );
where bi (X ) 2 K ((X )) , for i = 2; : : : ; n.
If bi (X ) = 0, for all i = 2; : : : ; n, it follows that q is redu ible in
K ((X )) [Z ℄, and therefore p is redu ible in K ((X )) [Y ℄.
Suppose now that there exists an index i su h that bi (X ) 6= 0. The next
step will be to perform another transformation on q(X; Z ) in order to make
it an element of K [[W ℄℄ [Z ℄ for some W .
We denote by ui the multipli ity of bi (X ) and put

ui
u = min
i
j2in :
Let r be su h that u = ur and onsider the map
r
: K ((X )) [Z ℄ ! K ((W )) [Z ℄:

f (X; Z ) 7 f (W r ; ZW ur )
!
It is easy to verify that is an isomorphism of K -algebras and that it
preserves the degrees as polynomials in Z .
Let
n
h(W; Z ) = W nur (q (X; Z )) =W nur q (W r ; ZW ur ) = Z n + X n i;
i (W )Z
i=2
(3.2)
where i (W ) = bi (W r )W iur .
We have that
mult( i ) = rui iur 0;
with equality for i = r. So, r (0) 6= 0 and i (W ) 2 K [[W ℄℄ , 2 i n.
Then there exists a positive integer k su h that
n
X
k n
h(W ; Z ) = Z + i (W
k )Z n i 2 K [[W ℄℄[Z ℄:
i=2
Sin e r (0) 6= 0 and the hara teristi of K is zero, then h(0; Z ) has at
least two distin t roots. So, by Hensel's Lemma (Theorem 1.1) there exist
h1 (W; Z ); h2 (W; Z ) 2 K [[W ℄℄[Z ℄ of degrees greater or equal to one in Z , su h
that
h(W k ; Z ) = h1 (W; Z )h2 (W; Z ):
From this and from (3.2) it follows that
1 1
(q(X; Z )) = W nur h(W; Z ) = W nur h1 (W k ; Z ):h2 (W k ; Z );
and therefore,
1 1
q(X; Z ) = 1 W nur h1 (W k ; Z ):h2 (W k ; Z ) =
1 1
1 h1 (W k ; Z ) : 1 h2 (W k ; Z ) :
nur
X r
Consequently, q(X; Z ) is redu ible in K ((X )) [Z ℄.

2
The above theorem is not true anymore if har(K ) > 0. In su h ase it
is known that K ((X )) is a proper subeld of K ((X )).
Problems
2.1) Is any of the series below an element of K [[X ℄℄ ?

P 1 P 1
a) i2IN X i b) i2IN X i! .
2.2) Show that the map in the proof of the Theorem of Newton-Puiseux
is a K -isomorphism and preserves degrees as polynomials in Z .
2.3) Let K be an algebrai ally losed eld of hara teristi zero and let n
be an integer greater or equal to 2. Let
p(Y ) = Y n + a2 Y n 2 + + an 2 K [Y ℄;
with some of the ai 's, i = 2; : : : ; n, non-zero. Then p(Y ) admits at least two
distin t roots in K .
3.3 Extensions of the Field of Laurent Series

1
Sin e the Galois group of the extension K ((X n ))=K ((X )) is isomorphi to
Un , we have that an element of Un a ts on an element
X 1 i X i
= bi X n = bi X n
ii0 ii0
1
in K ((X n )) in the following way:
X 1 i X
=
i
bi X n = bi i X n :
ii0 ii0
1
Lemma 3 Let 2 K ((X )) n K ((X )) and let n = minfq j 2 K ((X q ))g.
1
Considering as an element of K ((X n )) we have that 6= , for all
; 2 Un , with 6= .
Proof: Sin e 62 K ((X )), we have that n 2.
Write 1 X i
= '(X n ) = bi X n ;
ii0
1 1
and suppose by absurdity that '(X n ) = '(X n ). Then i bi = i bi for all
i. Hen e i = i for all i su h that bi 6= 0.
3.3. EXTENSIONS OF THE FIELD OF LAURENT SERIES 49
Let d be the GCD of n and of the i's for whi h bi 6= 0. Then d = 1

1
be ause, otherwise, we would have 2 K ((X n0 )), where n0 = nd < n, whi h
is a ontradi tion.
It follows that there exist bi1 6= 0; : : : ; bik 6= 0 and v; v1 ; : : : ; vk 2 ZZ su h
that vn + v1 i1 + + vk ik = 1, and therefore
= ( n )v ( i1 )v1 ( ik )vk = (n )v (i1 )v1 (ik )vk = ;
ontradi ting the assumption that 6= .
2
The following result will des ribe the prin ipal algebrai extensions of
K ((X )), that is, the elds K ((X ))(), obtained by the adjun tion to K ((X ))
of an algebrai element . In this situation, from general eld theory we
know that
K ((X ))() = K ((X ))[℄ = fP (); P 2 K ((X ))[Y ℄g:
1
Theorem 2 Let 2 K ((X )) n K ((X )) and let us write = '(X n ), where
1
n = minfq 2 IN j 2 K ((X q ))g. Then
1
i) K ((X ))[℄ = K ((X n )).
ii) The minimal polynomial of over K ((X )) is given by
n
Y
g(X; Y ) = (Y i );
i=1
1
where i = '( i X n ), for some xed generator of the group Un .
iii) We have g(X; Y ) = Y n + a1 (X )Y n 1 + + an (X ) 2 K ((X ))[Y ℄,

where
mult(an (X ))
mult(ai (X )) i mult() = i ;
n
with equality when i = n. In parti ular, if mult() 1 (respe tively,
mult() > 0), then g(X; Y ) 2 K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄ and it is a Weierstrass poly-
nomial (respe tively, a pseudo-polynomial).
Proof:
1 1
(i) Let G = G K ((X n ))=K ((X )) and G0 = G K ((X n ))=K ((X ))[℄ .
By Lemma 3, we have that
G0 = f 2 G j = g = (1);
1
hen e K ((X n )) = K ((X ))[℄.
(ii) Sin e the i 's are the transforms of by the elements of G, it follows
that g(X; Y ) 2 K ((X ))[Y ℄; and sin e
deg(g(X; Y )) = jG (K ((X ))[℄=K ((X ))) j ;
it follows that g(X; Y ) is irredu ible in K ((X ))[Y ℄.
(iii) If Si , i = 1; : : : ; n, are the elementary symmetri polynomials, then the
oeÆ ients of g(X; Y ) are given by
ai (X ) = ( 1)i Si (1 ; : : : ; n ) 2 K ((X )):
Sin e from (ii) we have that mult(j ) = mult() for all j = 1; : : : ; n, it
follows that mult(an (X )) = n mult(); and for all i = 1; : : : ; n,
mult(ai (X )) = mult(( 1)i Si(1 ; : : : ; n )) i mult():
The other assertions now follow immediately.
2
1
Corollary 1 Every nite extension of K ((X )) is of the form K ((X n )),
for some n 2 IN n f0g.
Proof: Indeed, sin e harK ((X )) = 0, it follows that any nite extension
of K ((X )) has a primitive element and hen e is of the form K ((X ))[℄. The
result follows now from the theorem.
2
Corollary 2 Let f 2 K ((X ))[Y ℄ be an irredu ible moni polynomial of
degree n 1, and let 2 K ((X )) be any root of f . Then
1
i) minfq 2 IN j 2 K ((X q ))g = n:
ii) The i 's being as in Theorem 2, we have that
n
Y
f (X; Y ) = (Y i ):
i=1
3.3. EXTENSIONS OF THE FIELD OF LAURENT SERIES 51
iii) If f2 K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄ is a Weierstrass polynomial (respe tively, a pseudo-

polynomial), then mult() 1 (respe tively, mult() > 0). In parti -
ular, 2 K [[X ℄℄ .
Proof: The items (i) and (ii) follow immediately from Theorem 2. To
prove (iii), suppose that f = Y n + a1 (X )Y n 1 + + an (X ) is a Weierstrass
polynomial. Then
n = an (X ) + an 1 (X ) + + a1 (X )n 1 ;
hen e for some i0 = 1; : : : ; n,
n mult() min fmult(ai (X )) + (n i)mult()g =
i
= mult(ai0 (X )) + (n i0 )mult() i0 + (n i0 )mult():

It then follows that i0 mult() i0 and hen e mult() 1. The proof
in ase f is a pseudo-polynomial is similar.
2
Corollary 3 (Newton's Impli it Fun tion Theorem) Let f (X; Y ) 2
n f (0; 0) 6= 0.
K [[X; Y ℄℄ be irredu ible and of multipli ity n and suppose that Y n
Then there exists X
i
'(X n ) = bi X n
i
2 K [[X n1 ℄℄;
i1
su h that
1
f (X; '(X n )) = 0:
1
Moreover, any 2 K [[X n ℄℄ satisfying f (X; ) = 0 is su h that =
1
'(X n ), for some 2 Un .
Proof: Sin e the multipli ity of f is n and its nth partial derivative with
respe t to Y in (0; 0) doesn't vanish we have that f is regular with respe t
to Y . From the Weierstrass Preparation Theorem (Theorem 2.2), it follows
that f is asso iated to a pseudo-polynomial in K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄ of degree n. The
result now follows immediately from Corollary 2 above.
2
When n = 1, the above result is pre isely the Impli it Fun tion Theorem.
Remark 1 Sin e the ring K [[X ℄℄ is a unique fa torization domain with

eld of fra tions is K ((X )), every irredu ible polynomial in K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄ is
irredu ible in K ((X ))[Y ℄.
The following is an important ne essary ondition for the irredu ibility
a power series, whi h is of fundamental geometri importan e.
Lemma 4 (Unitangent Lemma) Let f 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ with f (0; 0) = 0 be
irredu ible of multipli ity n. Then the initial form of f is of the type
Fn = (aX + bY )n ;
with a; b 2 K and not simultaneously zero.
Proof: If ne essary, we may perform a linear hange of oordinates, whi h
doesn't ae t the type of the tangent one (a linear form to a ertain power),
in su h a way that f is regular in Y . By the Weierstrass Preparation Theorem
there exist a Weierstrass polynomial p = p(X; Y ) in K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄ of degree
n, and a unitary element u in K [[X; Y ℄℄ su h that up = f . Sin e f is
irredu ible, it follows that p is irredu ible in K [[X; Y ℄℄. Hen e by Lemma
2.4, we have that p is irredu ible in K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄ and therefore from Remark 1,
p is irredu ible in K ((X ))[Y ℄. From Corollary 2 of Theorem 2, we have that
n
Y 1
p(X; Y ) = (Y '( k X n ));
k=1
where is a primitive nth root of unity and
1 r +1 1
+ 2 K ((X n ));
r
'(X n ) = br X n + br+1 X n
with br 6= 0. Sin e p is a Weierstrass polynomial, from Corollary 2 (iii) of

1
Theorem 2, we have mult('(X n )) 1, and therefore r n. Sin e the initial
form of p is the initial form of the polynomial
Q r P
q(X; Y ) = nk=1 (Y kr br X n ) =Y n (br X n nk=1 kr )Y n 1 +
r
ir P
+ ( 1)i bir X n nk=1 ikr Y n i + + ( 1)n bnr X r ;
we have that:
a) If r = n, the initial form of p is (Y bn X )n .
3.4. PARAMETRIZATION AND CHARACTERISTIC EXPONENTS 53
b) If r > n, then n i + i nr > n, for all i = 1; : : : ; n. Hen e the initial

form of p is Y n .
Sin e the initial form of f is the produ t of u(0; 0)(6= 0) with the initial
form of p, it follows that Fn is of the form (aX + bY )n .
2
The Unitangent Lemma says that if f is irredu ible, then the tangent
one to (f ) onsists of the only line (aX + bY ), ounted with multipli ity.
Although we proved the Unitangent Lemma in hara teristi zero sin e
we used Newton-Puiseux' Theorem, the result is also true for any alge-
brai ally losed eld K (see [C℄ for a systemati study of this subje t in
arbitrary hara teristi ).
Example 2 The following polynomials are redu ible in K [[X; Y ℄℄.
- The nodal ubi : Y 2 X 2 (X 1),
- Des artes' Folium: 3XY (X 3 + Y 3 ),
- Ma laurin's Trisse trix: X (X 2 + Y 2 ) (Y 2 3X 2 ),
- Ni omedes' Con hoid: (Y 1)2 (X 2 + Y 2 ) 2Y 2 ,
- Pas al's Snail: (X 2 + Y 2 )2 2X (X 2 + Y 2 ) + 3X 2 Y 2 :
Problems
3.1) De ide whether ea h of the following series is redu ible or irredu ible
in K [[X; Y ℄℄.
a) X Y + X 2 + Y 2 XY 2 + X 2 Y X 3 + Y 3.
b) X 2 + 2XY + 2Y 2 .
) X Y + XY + X 3 + Y 5 .
d) X 6 X 2 Y 3 Y 5 .
e) X + Y + (X + Y )2 .
3.4 Parametrization and Chara teristi Exponents

We are going to introdu e the notion of parametrization of plane bran hes.
This will be a powerful tool to study the properties of urves.
Let f = Fn + Fn+1 + 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ be an irredu ible power series of
multipli ity n. By the Unitangent Lemma we have that Fn = (aX + bY )n
for some a; b 2 K . So, either f is regular in Y (when b 6= 0) or f is regular
in X (when a 6= 0).
If f is regular in Y , then we may write it in the form:

f = a0 (X )Y n + a1 (X )Y n 1 + + an (X ) + Y n+1 h(X; Y ); (3.3)
with ai (X ) 2 K [[X ℄℄, mult(ai (X )) i for i = 1; : : : ; n, a0(0) 6= 0 and
h(X; Y ) 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄.
Lemma 5 Let f 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ be an irredu ible power series of multipli ity n
and regular in Y . Write f as in (3.3). Then
mult(an (X ))
mult(ai (X )) i ; i = 0; : : : ; n:
n
Proof: Sin e f is regular in Y of order n, from the Weierstrass Preparation
Theorem, we know that there exist a unit u in K [[X; Y ℄℄ and A1 ; : : : ; An 2
K [[X ℄℄, with Ai (0) = 0, su h that
u f = P (X; Y ) = Y n + A1 Y n 1 + + An : (3.4)
Sin e the above right hand side is irredu ible in K [[X; Y ℄℄, we have from
Theorem 2 (iii) that, for i = 0; : : : ; n,
mult(An (X ))
mult(Ai (X )) i :
n
Let us write u = u0 + u1 Y + , with ui 2 K [[X ℄℄. So, u0 (0) 6= 0. From
(3.4) we get that
u0 ai + u1 ai+1 + + un i an = Ai ; i = 1; : : : ; n:
In parti ular, we have
mult(an ) = mult(u0 an ) = mult(An ):
The proof will be done by des ent on i. For i = n the result is trivially
mult(an (X ))
true. Suppose that we have shown that mult(aj ) j , for j > i,
n
hen e
mult(an (X ))
mult(ai ) = mult(Ai (u1 ai+1 + + un i an )) i ;
n
proving the result.
2
Remark 2 The following onditions are learly equivalent:

(i) The tangent one of (f ) is (Y n ),
(ii) For all i 1, mult(ai (X )) > i,
(iii) For some i 1, mult(ai (X )) > i.
Suppose now that f is irredu ible of multipli ity n and regular in Y as
in (3.3). Let P (X; Y ) 2 K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄ be the pseudo-polynomial of degree n
1 1
asso iated to f , as in (3.4) above, and let = '(X n ) 2 K [[X n ℄℄, where
1
n = minfq 2 IN; 2 K ((X q ))g;
1
be su h that P (X; ) = P (X; '(X n )) = 0 (see Corollary 2 of Theorem 2).
1
If we put T = X n , then we have '(T ) 2 K [[T ℄℄ and
f (T n; '(T )) = 0:
In this situation we say that
(
X = Tn P (3.5)
Y = '(T ) = im bi T i ; bm 2 K n f0g;
is a Puiseux parametrization of the bran h (f ).
Any other root of P will give another Puiseux parametrization (T n ; (T ))
of (f ), where (T ) = '(T ), and is an nth root of unity. These are the
only parametrizations of (f ) of the form (T n ; '(T )).
Noti e that the ondition
1
n = minfq 2 IN; 2 K ((X q )) and f (X; ) = 0g;
implies that in any Puiseux parametrization as in (3.5), n and the indi es i
for whi h bi 6= 0, are relatively prime.
Noti e also that from Theorem 2 (iii) we have
multT ('(T )) = n multX () = multX (An (X )) = multX (an (X )) n:
In parti ular, if the tangent one of (f ) is (Y n ), then from Remark 2 we
have that
multT ('(T )) = mult(an (X )) > n: (3.6)
There are many other possible parametrizations of (f ) by means of other

series in K [[T ℄℄. Let ( 1 (T ); 2 (T )) be a pair of non-zero and non-unit
elements in K [[T ℄℄. We say that ( 1 (T ); 2 (T )) is a parametrization of (f )
if
f ( 1 (T ); 2 (T )) = 0;
as an element of K [[T ℄℄. A parametrization ( 1 (T ); 2 (T )) of (f ) will be
alled primitive if there is an automorphism of K [[T ℄℄ su h that
(( 1 (T )); ( 2 (T ))) = (T n ; '(T ));
where (T n ; '(T )) is a Puiseux parametrization of (f).
If f is regular in X , then we have the same results as above inter hanging
the roles of X and Y .
There exists an algorithm in hara teristi zero, due to Newton, to deter-
mine a Puiseux parametrization of an algebroid plane urve (f ) (see [W℄ or
[BK℄). This algorithm is implemented, for example, in the pa kage MAPLE.
The relationship between the equation of a urve and its Puiseux parametriza-
tion is of high omplexity as one may see in the following examples.
Example 3 The urve given by
f = Y 8 4X 3 Y 6 8X 5 Y 5 + (6X 6 26X 7 )Y 4 + ( 24X 9 + 16X 8 )Y 3 +
+(36X 10 4X 9 20X 11 )Y 2 + ( 8X 11 + 16X 12 8X 13 )Y + 21X 14 +
+X 12 + 6X 13 X 15 ;
may be parametrized by
(
X = T8
Y = T 12 + T 14 T 15 :
Example 4 The urve
(f ) = (Y 3 9X 3 Y X 4 );
has a parametrization whose terms up to the power 19 in T are:
8
< X = T3
>
>
Y = T 4 + 3T 5 9T 7 + 27T 8 324T 10 + 1215T 11 18711T 13 +
: 14
+75816T 16 17
1301265T + 5484996T 100048689T 19 +
Let C be a plane bran h dened by an irredu ible power series f of

multipli ity n and regular in Y with a Puiseux parametrization
(
X = Tn P
Y = '(T ) = im bi T i ; bm 6= 0 m n:
We dene two sequen es ("i ) and (i ) of natural numbers asso iated to
(f ) as follows:
"0 = 0 = n
j = min fi j i 6 0 mod "j 1 and bi 6= 0g ; if "j 1 6= 1
"j = GCD("j 1 ; j ) = GCD(0 ; : : : ; j ):
Observe that if "j 1 6= 1, then the set fi; i 6 0 mod "j 1 and bi 6= 0g
is not empty sin e the parametrization is primitive. Therefore, the j are
well dened, with 1 equal to the rst exponent of T in '(T ) whi h is not
divisible by n, and with non-vanishing oeÆ ient. We also have that "j
divides "j 1 , for all j 1 and
n = "0 > "1 > "2 >
Consequently, for some 2 IN, we must have " = 1, and therefore, the
sequen e of the j , j 1 is in reasing and stops in .
Definition The hara teristi exponents of C are the ( + 1) natural
numbers (0 ; 1 ; : : : ; ).
Example 5 Let the parametrization (T 4 ; T 6 + T 8 + T 10 + T 11 ) be given,
then we have 0 = "0 = 4, 1 = 6, "1 = 2, 2 = 11 and "2 = 1. So, in this
ase, = 2.
Noti e that the hara teristi exponents of a plane bran h C determine
the integers "j , sin e "j = GCD(0 ; 1 ; : : : ; j ).
With the above notation, we may write a parametrization of the bran h
C as follows:
(
x = Tn
P P P
y = P (T n ) + i=2 11 bi T i + + i= 1 1 bi T i + i bi T i ;
where P (T ) 2 K [T ℄, and b1 b =
6 0.
From the denition of the j , we may easily dedu e that the oeÆ ients
of the above parametrization have the following property: if i and j are
integers su h that j 1 i < j , and if ej 1 doesn't divide i, then bi = 0.
Conversely, given any in reasing sequen e of natural relatively prime
integers 0 ; : : : ; , su h that the integers dened by
"j = GCD(0 ; : : : ; j )
are stri tly de reasing, then this sequen e orresponds to the hara teristi
exponents of some plane bran h C .
One also denes the Puiseux pairs (j ; j ), j = 1; : : : ; , of C as follows:
"j 1
j = ; and j = j :
"j "j
Now, sin e "j = GCD(ej 1 ; j ), we have that
GCD(j ; j ) = 1:
Problems
4.1) Show, for all i; j = 1; : : : ; , with i < j , that

a) j > 1 .
b) n = 1 2 j "j = 1 2 .
) "j = j +1 .
d) i i+1 : : : j = eiej 1 .
e) log2 n.
4.2) a) Show that a set of pairs of natural numbers (j ; j ), j = 1; : : : ; is
the set of Puiseux pairs of a bran h C if and only if
1 < 1 ; j > 1; for j 1;
j 1j < j ; for j 2;
GCD(j ; j ) = 1; for j 1:
b) Show that the hara teristi exponents and the Puiseux pairs determine
ea h other.
3.5. PLANE ANALYTIC CURVES 59
4.3) Find the hara teristi exponents and the Puiseux pairs of the bran hes
dened by the following parametrizations:
a) x = T 6 ; y = T 8 + T 10 + T 12 + T 13 .
b) x = T 6 ; y = T 9 + T 10 + T 11 .
) x = T 6 ; y = T 20 + T 31 .
d) x = T 6 ; y = T 20 + T 28 + T 31 .
e) x = T 6 ; y = T 22 + T 31 .
f) x = T 8 ; y = T 12 + T 13 .
g) x = T 12 ; y = T 24 + T 30 + T 33 + T 40 .
h) x = T 18 ; y = T 24 + T 30 + T 33 + T 40 .
3.5 Plane Analyti Curves

The algebrai properties of the ring of onvergent power series with omplex
oeÆ ients CI fX; Y g are very similar to those of the ring C[[I X; Y ℄℄. For
instan e, CI fX; Y g is a domain whose invertible elements are the elements f
su h that f (0; 0) 6= 0 (this may be proved by showing that the series f 1
onstru ted in the proof of Proposition 1.1 is absolutely onvergent in some
neighborhood of the origin). From this it follows that M = hX; Y i is the
unique maximal ideal of the ring CI fX; Y g and it has the property
\
Mi = f0g:
i2IN
Hen e, it is also possible to substitute non-unit onvergent power series
g1 ; g2 2 CI fX; Y g, into a onvergent series f 2 CI fX; Y g, getting a onver-
gent series. In this ontext it is also possible to show that every automor-
phism of CI fX; Y g is the result of the substitution of X and Y by g1 and
g2 , ea h of multipli ity one and with linearly independent initial forms over
C.
I On the other hand, the Division and Preparation Theorems as well as
Hensel's Lemma are valid, implying that CI fX; Y g is a noetherian unique
fa torization domain.
When we deal with a onvergent series f we gain an extra geometri
interpretation, more pre isely, we have an analyti urve
Cf = f(z; w) 2 U ; f (z; w) = 0g;
where U is a suÆ iently small neighborhood of the origin of CI 2 .
Let f; g 2 CI fX; Y g and let be an automorphism of CI fX; Y g. To
there is asso iated a bi-analyti isomorphism ~ : V ! U where U and V
are open neighborhoods of the origin in CI 2 and suppose that f and g are
onvergent in U . It is easy to verity that
Cf g = Cf [ Cg ;
and that
~ Cf ) = C(f ) :
(
A point P 2 Cf is singular if
f (P ) = fX (P ) = fY (P ) = 0;
where fX and fY are the partial derivatives of f with respe t to X and to
Y.
A point P = (a; b) 2 Cf is regular when it is not singular and in this
ase, we dene the tangent line to Cf at P as
TP Cf : fX (P )(X a) + fY (P )(Y b) = 0:
Proposition 2 Suppose that f 2 CI fX; Y g is redu ed, then there exists an
open set U in CI 2 , ontaining the origin, su h that Cf is regular in Cf \
(U n f(0; 0)g).
Proof: Indeed, after a linear hange of variables, whi h doesn't ae t
the singular or regular hara ter of a point, we may assume that f is a
pseudo-polynomial in a neighborhood U 0 of (0; 0). Let g(X ) = DY (f ) be
the dis riminant of f ; that is, the resultant RY (f; fY ). We know (see Se tion
2.4) that g(X ) is not identi ally zero, be ause f is redu ed. Sin e the zeros
of an analyti fun tion in one variable g(X ) are isolated, there exists an open
neighborhood V of the origin in CI su h that
RY (f (a; Y ); fY (a; Y )) = g(a) 6= 0; 8a 2 V n f0g;
and therefore by Corollary 2 of Proposition 2.1, we have that f and fY do
not vanish simultaneously in V CI n f(0; 0)g. Taking U = V C,
I the result
is now proved.
2
We dene the equivalen e relation in CI fX; Y g in a similar way as it
was dened in C[[I X; Y ℄℄: given f; g 2 CI fX; Y g, we say that (f ) (g) if and
only if there exist a C-automorphism
I and a unit u of CI fX; Y g, su h that
(f ) = ug:
This implies that there exist open neighborhoods U and V of the origin
of CI 2 , su h that Cf is dened in U and Cg is dened in V , and a bi-analyti
map ~ : U ! V su h that
~ Cf ) = Cg :
(
Conversely, we will show below that if f and g are redu ed elements in
CI fX; Y g and if there exists a bi-analyti map ~ : U ! V , where U and
~ Cf ) = Cg , then
V are open neighborhoods of the origin of CI 2 , su h that (
(f ) (g).
Remark 3 Newton-Puiseux' Theorem, in this ontext, says that if f 2
CI fX; Y g is an irredu ible pseudo-polynomial of multipli ity n, then there
exists a power series '(t) 2 CI ftg, onvergent in a dis D entered at the
origin of C,I su h that
f (tn; '(t)) = 0; 8 t 2 D:
This gives us a lo al parametrization of Cf around the origin of CI 2 , by
analyti fun tions. On the other hand, there are n su h parametrizations
for Cf , namely, (tn ; 'i (t)), i = 0; : : : ; n 1, with 'i (t) = '( i t); where is
a primitive nth root of the identity, in su h a way that for any z 2 CI lose
to the origin, if w is an n-th root of z , then 'i (w), i = 0; : : : ; n 1, are the
roots of the polynomial f (z; Y ) = 0. Now, sin e DY (f ) 6= 0, we also have
that the roots in CI of f (z; Y ) for z 6= 0, lose to the origin, are all distin t.
This shows that for a non-zero z , lose to zero, if '(z ) = 'i (z ), then i = 0.
Lemma 6 Let f 2 CI fX g[Y ℄ be an irredu ible pseudo-polynomial of multi-
pli ity n. Then there exist an open neighborhood U of (0; 0) in CI 2 , a dis D
entered at the origin of CI and an analyti map
: D ! U;
t 7 (t) = (tn; '(t))
!
su h that f is onvergent in U , (D) = Cf \ U and : D ! (D) is a
homeomorphism with (0) = (0; 0).
Proof: Let D1 be a small dis entered at the origin of CI su h that
the oeÆ ients of f in CI fX g are onvergent, and DY (f )(z ) 6= 0 for all
z 2 D1 n f0g. Let ' and D be as in Remark 3 with D small enough in order
that tn 2 D1 for t 2 D. Let U = D1 C.I It is lear that (D) Cf \ U . Let
(z; w) 2 Cf \ U , then there exists t 2 D su h that z = tn and w = '( i t),
for some i, hen e is onto Cf \ U . The map is inje tive be ause, if

(t) = (t0 ), then t0 = i t, for some i, hen e
'(t) = '(t0 ) = '( i t) = 'i (t);
whi h implies, after Remark 3, that i = 0, and therefore t = t0 .
The map is obviously analyti and moreover, jDnf0g has a non-zero
dierential at all points, so it is an analyti embedding, giving a homeomor-
phism between D n f0g and Cf \ U n f(0; 0)g, whi h by ontinuity extends
to a homeomorphism between D and Cf \ U .
2
Corollary If f 2 CI fX; Y g is irredu ible, then Cf is homeomorphi to a
dis , in a neighborhood of the origin.
Lemma 7 If f and g are irredu ible and not asso iated in CI fX; Y g, then
there exists an open neighborhood U of the origin in CI 2 su h that
Cf \ Cg \ U = f(0; 0)g:
Proof: We may redu e easily the problem to the ase in whi h f and g
are pseudo-polynomials. Sin e RY (f; g) is not identi ally zero, be ause f
and g are not asso iated, we have that there exists a neighborhood D of the
origin in CI su h that RY (f; g)(a) 6= 0, for all a 2 D n f0g. This implies that
f (a; Y ) and g(a; Y ) have no ommon roots in C, I for all a 2 D n f0g. If we
put U = D C, I the result follows.
2
Corollary Let f; g 2 CI fX; Y g irredu ible. Then Cf = Cg if and only if
f and g are asso iated.
Proof: If f and g are asso iated, then learly Cf = Cg . The onverse
follows from Lemma 7.
2
Proposition 3 Let f; g 2 CI fX; Y g and suppose there exists a neighborhood
of the origin in CI 2 su h that Cf = Cg , then red(f ) and red(g) are asso iated.
Proof: Write f = f1n1 frnr and g = g1m1 gsms . We have that
Cf = Cf1 [ [ Cfr ; and Cg = Cg1 [ [ Cgs :

Hen e from the orollaries of Lemmas 6 and 7, we have that
Cfi n f(0; 0)g; i = 1; : : : ; r; and Cgj n f(0; 0)g; j = 1; : : : ; s;
are respe tively the onne ted omponents of Cf n f(0; 0)g and Cg n f(0; 0)g.
Sin e Cf = Cg , it then follows that r = s, and that ea h Cfi is equal to
Cgj , for some j , whi h, again from the orollary of Lemma 7, implies that
(fi ) = (gj ), showing that red(f ) and red(g) are asso iated.
2
Corollary Let f; g 2 CI fX; Y g be redu ed, where f is dened in U and
g in V . Suppose that there exists a bi-analyti map ~ : U ! V su h that
~ Cf ) = Cg . Then (f ) (g).
(
Proof: Let be the automorphism of CI fX; Y g asso iated to ~ . The
~
ondition (Cf ) = Cg implies that C(f ) = Cg , whi h implies by the propo-
sition that red((f )) and red(g) are asso iated. Sin e f is redu ed, it follows
that (f ) is redu ed, and be ause also g is redu ed, it follows that (f ) and
g are asso iated.
2
In what follows we are going to give a geometri interpretation for the
tangent one of a urve. The rst result will say that the lines of the tangent
one to an analyti urve at the origin are limits of se ant lines through the
origin, while the se ond result will say that the tangent one onsists of
limits of tangent lines to the urve at regular points near the origin.
I Pn 1 asso iated to CI n is the quotient
Re all that the proje tive spa e CI
of CI n n f0g modulo the equivalen e relation
z Rz 0 () 9 2 CI n f0g; z = z 0 :
We will use the notation (X0 : : : : : Xn 1 ) to represent homogeneous
I Pn 1 . It is well known that CI
oordinates in CI I Pn 1 , with the quotient
topology indu ed by the topology of CI n , is ompa t.
To the line a0 X + b0 Y = 0 in CI 2 we asso iate the point (a0 : b0 ) of CI
I P1 .
Proposition 4 Let Cf U be an analyti urve through the origin, where

U CI 2 is a neighborhood of the origin. Let (Pm ) be a sequen e of points in
Cf nf0g that onverges to the origin. Then the sequen e (Pm ) of the omplex
lines Pm through the origin and Pm , viewed as points in CI I P1 , onverges to
P , that represents a line belonging to the tangent one of Cf .
Proof: Let X
f (X; Y ) = Fj (X; Y );
j n
be the Taylor expansion of f , where Fj is the homogeneous polynomial of
degree j and Fn 6= 0. The tangent one of Cf is determined by the equation
Fn (X; Y ) = 0. Dene Pm = (am ; bm ) and P = (a; b). Sin e
I P1 = fP ; a 6= 0g [ fP ; b 6= 0g;
CI
and P 2 CI I P1 , we may assume without loss of generality that a 6= 0. Sin e
fP ; a 6= 0g is an open set in CI
I P1 , there exists m0 2 IN su h that for m m0
we have Pm 2 fP ; a 6= 0g. Hen e
0 X 1
X b b
0 = f (Pm ) = Fj (am ; bm ) = (am )n Fn 1; m + (am )i Fn+i 1; m A :
j n am i1 am
Therefore, for m m0 ,

bm X i

bm
Fn 1; + (am ) Fn+i 1; = 0; (3.7)
am i1 am
hen e taking the limit when m ! 1, we have that

bm b
1;
am
! 1; a and am ! 0;
and therefore from (3.7) we get Fn (1; ab ) = 0 and onsequently Fn (P ) = 0,

whi h on lude the proof of the result.
2
Proposition 5 Let C be an irredu ible analyti plane urve, dened in a
neighborhood of the origin and regular away from the origin. For any se-
quen e of points (Pm ) in C n f0g su h that Pm ! (0; 0), we have that TPm C
tends to the tangent one of C .
Proof: After hanging oordinates, if ne essary, we may assume that the

equation of C is a regular in Y and that its tangent line is horizontal (re all
the Unitangent Lemma).
We know that C has a parametrization of the form (T n ; '(T )) where
n = mult(C ) and
'(T ) = br T r + br+1 T r+1 + 2 CI fT g:
Hen e the dire tional ve tor of the tangent line of C at the point Pm =
(tnm ; '(tm ))
is given by

T n ' r
: (tm ) = (1 : br trm n + ):
T T n
From (3.6) we have that r n > 0. So, when tm ! 0, the dire tional
ve tors of the tangents tend to the ve tor (1; 0), whi h is pre isely the dire -
tional ve tor of the tangent one of C .
2
Chapter 4
INTERSECTION OF
CURVES
4.1 The Lo al Ring of a Plane Curve
Given a ring A and elements z1 ; : : : ; zn 2 A, we will denote by hz1 ; : : : ; zn i
the ideal of A generated by the elements z1 ; : : : ; zn .
Let K be an arbitrary eld and let f be an element in the maximal ideal
M = hX; Y i of K [[X; Y ℄℄.
We dene the oordinate ring of the urve (f ) as being the K -algebra
Of = K [[hX;
fi
Y ℄℄
:
If h 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ and B K [[X; Y ℄℄, we will denote by h the residual

lass of h in Of , and by B the set of the residual lasses of the elements
of B . We will denote the residual lass Y by y and X by x, respe tively.
In many situations we will identify x with X itself, sin e this will ause no
onfusion.
The ring Of is a lo al ring with maximal ideal
Mf = M:
When f is irredu ible, Of is an integral domain and in this ase, the eld
of fra tions of Of will be denoted by Kf .
The next result will tell us that the ring Of is an important invariant of
the equivalen e lasses of algebroid plane urves. When two lo al K -algebras
Of and Og are isomorphi we will write Of ' Og .
67
68 CHAPTER 4. INTERSECTION OF CURVES
Theorem 1 Let (f ) and (g ) be two algebroid plane urves. We have that

(f ) (g) if and only if Of ' Og .
Proof: We will denote by h and by h, respe tively, the residual lasses in
Of and in Og of an element h 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄.
Suppose initially that (f ) (g). Then there exist an automorphism
and a unit u of K [[X; Y ℄℄ su h that
(f ) = ug:
It is lear that the surje tion Æ ,
K [[X; Y ℄℄ ! K [[X; Y ℄℄
! Og ;
h 7! (h) 7 (h)
!
where is the anoni al surje tion, is su h that Ker( Æ ) = hf i, and
therefore, Of ' Og .
Conversely, suppose that Of ' Og .
If mult(f ) = mult(g) = 1, we have from Proposition 3.1 that (f ) (g),
and we are done in this ase.
To on lude the proof, suppose that mult(g) 2 and that Of ' Og
through an isomorphism .~ Let T1 ; T2 2 M be su h that
(
~ X ) = T1
(
~ Y ) = T2 ;
(
and dene the homomorphism
: K [[X; Y ℄℄ ! K [[X; Y ℄℄:
X 7! T1
Y 7 ! T2
Sin e ~ is an isomorphism, there exist R(X; Y ); S (X; Y ) 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄
su h that
~ R(X; Y )) = R(T1 ; T2 );
X = (
and
~ S (X; Y )) = S (T1 ; T2 ):
Y = (
Now, sin e mult(g) > 1, it follows that
X R(T1 ; T2 ) 2 hgi M2 ;
Y S (T1 ; T2 ) 2 hgi M2 :
4.1. THE LOCAL RING OF A PLANE CURVE 69
This implies that

T1 = aX + bY +
T2 = X + dY +
for some a; b; ; d 2 K su h that ad b 6= 0.
Hen e, is an automorphism of K [[X; Y ℄℄ su h that
~ f ) = f (T1 ; T2 );
0 = (
whi h implies that (f ) 2 hgi and therefore
(f ) = hg: (4.1)
In parti ular, (4.1) gives
mult(f ) = mult((f )) = mult(h) + mult(g) 2:
Now, observing that 1 indu es the transformation ~ 1 and inverting
the roles of f and g, we get, in the same way as above, that
1 (g) = h0 f:
It follows from the above equality that g = (h0 )(f ), whi h with (4.1)
imply that
(f ) = h(h0 )(f ):
This implies that h is a unit. This, together with (4.1), give (f ) (g).
2
Corollary If Of ' Og , then mult(f ) = mult(g).
When f has a well behaved equation with respe t to the indeterminate
Y , the K -algebra Of has also a stru ture of a K [[X ℄℄-module as we show
next.
Proposition 1 Let f 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ be regular in Y of some order n. Then

Of is a free K [[X ℄℄-module of rank n generated by the residual lasses yi of
Y i , i = 0; : : : ; n 1, in Of . In other words,
Of = K [[X ℄℄ K [[X ℄℄y K [[X ℄℄yn 1 :
Proof: From the Division Theorem (Theorem 2.1), any g 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄

may be written as
g = fh + a0 (X ) + a1 (X )Y + + an 1 (X )Y n 1 ;
with h 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ and a1 (X ); : : : ; an 1 (X ) 2 K [[X ℄℄.
So,
g = a0 (X ) + a1 (X )y + + an 1 (X )yn 1 ;
and therefore, Of has a natural stru ture of K [[X ℄℄-module generated by
1; y; : : : ; yn 1 . We are going to show that these elements are free over K [[X ℄℄.
Suppose that there exists a non-trivial relation in Of , over K [[X ℄℄,
b0 (X ) + b1 (X )y + + bn 1 (X )yn 1 = 0:
Then there exists q 2 K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄ su h that
b0 (X ) + b1 (X )Y + + bn 1 (X )Y n 1 = qf:
0 = fq + ( b0 (X ) b1 (X )Y bn 1(X )Y n 1);
and sin e
0 = f 0 + 0;
we get, from the uniqueness in the Division Theorem, that
(b0 (X ) + b1 (X )Y + + bn 1 (X )Y n 1 ) = 0:
The above equality implies that b0 (X ) = b1 (X ) = = bn 1 (X ) = 0.
2
For the rest of the hapter we will assume that K is algebrai ally losed
of hara teristi zero.
Using a Puiseux parametrization (T n ; '(T )) of (f ) we get the following
result:
Proposition 2 Let f 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ be an irredu ible power series, regular in
Y of order n. Let (T n ; '(T )) be a Puiseux parametrization of the urve (f ).
The map
! K [[T ℄℄
H' : K [[X; Y ℄℄
g 7! g(T n ; '(T ))
is a K -algebras homomorphism whose kernel is hf i.
Proof: H' is obviously a homomorphism and hf i Ker(H' ).

Conversely, let g be an element in the kernel of H' . From the Division
Theorem (Theorem 2.1), we may write
g = qf + r; q 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄; r 2 K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄ and degY r < n:1
1
Sin e g(X; ) = 0, where = '(X n ) 2 K [[X ℄℄ , it follows that r(X; ) =
0. This implies that r is divisible by the minimal polynomial of whi h is
of degree n, hen e r = 0 and therefore g = fq 2 hf i.
2
From the above proposition, we dedu e the following fundamental prop-
erty of urves, represented by irredu ible power series regular in Y of order
n, with a given Puiseux parametrization (T n ; '(T )). Namely, H' indu es
an inje tive homomorphism of K -algebras
H' : Of ! K [[T ℄℄;
whi h allows us to identify Of with the subalgebra of K [[T ℄℄
A' := H' (Of ) = K [[T n ; '(T )℄℄:
If (T ) = '(T ), where is an nth root of unity, then we have that
A ' A' through the automorphism
h : K [[T ℄℄ ! K [[T ℄℄:
P (T ) 7! P (T )
We also have from Proposition 1 that
A' = K [[T n℄℄ K [[T n ℄℄' K [[T n ℄℄'2 K [[T n ℄℄'n 1 ;
and from Theorem 3.2(i) that the eld of fra tions of A' is K ((T )).
An important remark to make here is that when f is regular in X , there
are similar results to those we obtained in the ase f regular in Y , just by
inter hanging the roles of X and Y .
Theorem 2 Let f 2 K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄ be an irredu ible pseudo-polynomial of de-
1
gree n and let ' be an element of K [[X n ℄℄ su h that f (X; ') = 0 . If
DY (f )(X ) is the dis riminant of f (X; Y ) in K [[X ℄℄, then
DY (f )(T n )K [[T ℄℄ A' :
1 Re all that we dened the degree of the zero polynomial to be 1
Proof: Consider the diagram

K [[ST ℄℄ K ((T )) = K ((T n))['℄
j
n
K [[T ℄℄ K ((T n ))
Re all that K ((T n ))['℄=K ((T n )) is a galoisian extension with Galois
group Un , the multipli ative group of the nth roots of unity (Lemma 3.1
and Theorem 3.2).
Let 2 K [[T ℄℄. As an element of K ((T )) = K ((T n ))['℄, we may write
as
nX1
= ai (T n )'i ; ai (T n ) 2 K ((T n )): (4.2)
i=0
Let us denote by a generator of the y li group Un and use notation
as in Se tion 3.3. Put
j = j and 'j = j ':
If we apply the j to equality (4.2) we get the system
nX1
j = ai (T n )'ij ; j = 0; : : : ; n 1; (4.3)
i=0
whose determinant is the Vandermonde determinant:
0 0 1
'0 'n0 1
B
B '01 'n1 1 C Y
B C
C
det B .. . .. .
.. C = ('r 's ) = :
. A r<s
'0n 1 'nn 11
From Proposition 2.4, we have that 2 = DY (f )(T n ), and therefore
2 2 K [[T n ℄℄.
By Cramer's rule, the system (4.3) gives
ai (T n ) = 1 Mi ;
where 0 0 1 1
'0 0 'n0
B
B '01 1 'n1 1 C
C
Mi = det B
B .. ... .. ... .. C 2 K [[T ℄℄;
C
. . . A
'0 n 1 n 1 'nn 1
1
is the determinant of the system (4.3), where we have repla ed the ith olumn
by the rst members of (4.3).
From this it follows that
2 ai (T n ) = Mi 2 K [[T ℄℄;
and sin e
j 2 ai (T n ) = 2 ai (T n ); 8j = 0; : : : ; n 1;
P
it follows that 2 ai (T n ) 2 K [[T n ℄℄. Sin e = ni=01 ai (T n )'i , we have that
nX1 nX1
DY (f )(T n ) = 2 ai (T n )'i 2 K [[T n ℄℄'i = A' :
i=0 i=0
This implies that
1
K [[T ℄℄ A ;
DY (f )(T n ) '
and therefore,
DY (f )(T n )K [[T ℄℄ A' :
2
Corollary With the same notation as in Theorem 2, we have that
K [[T ℄℄
dimK <1
A'
Proof: The theorem gives the following inequality
K [[T ℄℄ K [[T ℄℄
hDY (f )(T n)i = mult(DY (f )(T )) < 1:
dimK < dimK n
A'
2
The above orollary says that Of realized as a subring A' of K [[T ℄℄, by
means of a Puiseux parametrization (T n ; '(T )) of the irredu ible urve (f ),
has a ondu tor; that is, there exists a natural number su h that for all
h(T ) 2 K [[T ℄℄ with mult(h(T )) , then h(T ) 2 A' . The least integer with
the above property will be alled the ondu tor of (f ). We will meet this
on ept again in Chapter 6, where it will play a fundamental role.
We will dene the valuation asso iated to f as being the fun tion

vf : Of n f0g ! IN;
g 7 mult(H'(g))
!
and put vf (0) = 1.
It is lear that vf may be omputed by means of any primitive parametriza-
tion ( 1 (T ); 2 (T )) of (f ), sin e
vf (g) = mult(g(T n ; '(T ))) = mult((g(T n ; '(T )))) = mult(g( 1 (T ); 2 (T )));
where is the automorphism of K [[T ℄℄ su h that
(( 1 (T )); ( 2 (T ))) = (T n ; '(T )):
We will list below some properties of the fun tion vf , whi h are easy to
verify.
For all g; h 2 Of , one has
i) vf (gh) = vf (g ) + vf (h);
ii) vf (1) = 0,
iii) vf (g + h) minfvf (g ); vf (h)g, with equality if vf (g ) 6= vf (h).
Problems
1.1) Let (f ) be a regular urve. Show that Of ' K [[X ℄℄.

1.2) Show that (Y 2 X 5 ) is not equivalent to (Y 3 X 5 ).
1.3) Given f = Y 3 X 5 , nd a Puiseux parametrization (T 3 ; '(T )) for (f ).
If g = Y 3 X 3 + Y 5 X 2 X 8 , ompute vf (g )
4.2. COMPLEMENTS OF LINEAR ALGEBRA 75
4.2 Complements of Linear Algebra

In this se tion we will present some results about quotients and exa t se-
quen es of ve tor spa es whi h are not found in ordinary texts of Linear
Algebra.
Let U; V; W be ve tor spa es over a eld K . Consider a diagram of the
form
W ! V '! U; (4.4)
where and ' are homomorphisms of ve tor spa es. We will say that this
diagram forms a sequen e. A sequen e may be formed with more than two
homomorphisms.
Definition We will say that (4.4) is an exa t sequen e if
Im( ) = ker('):
An exa t sequen e of the form
0 ! V ! U;
means that is inje tive, while a sequen e of the type
'
W ! V ! 0;
means that ' is surje tive.
Suppose that W is a subspa e of the ve tor spa e V . Then
V
= fv = v + W ; v 2 V g;
W
is a ve tor spa e. Moreover, if dimK V < 1, then
V
dimK = dimK V dimK W: (4.5)
W
The above equality follows from the fa t that, if v1 ; : : : vm ; vm+1 ; : : : ; vn ,
is a basis for V , where v1 ; : : : vm , form a basis for W , then v m+1 ; : : : ; v n is a
basis for WV.
Proposition 3 Suppose that we have an exa t sequen e of ve tor spa es

0 ! W ! V '! U ! 0:
Then V is nite dimensional if and only if U and W are nite dimensional.
In this ase,
dimK V = dimK W + dimK U:
Proof: Sin e the sequen e is exa t we have that
dimK W = dimK (W ) = dimK ker(');

and from the isomorphism theorem, it follows that
V
ker(')
' U;
whi h in view of (4.5) implies that
dimK V = dimK ker(') + dimK U = dimK W + dimK U:
2
Proposition 4 Let W V U be a hain of ve tor spa es su h that
dimK WU < 1. Then,
U V U
dimK = dimK + dimK :
W W V
Proof: This follows from Proposition 3 and from the exa t sequen e:
V U
0 !W !W ! VU ! 0:
2
Proposition 5 (Noether Isomorphism Theorem) Let V and W be sub-
spa es of a ve tor spa e U . Then
V V +W
V \W
' W
:
Proof: The map:

V
V +W !
V \W
v + w 7! v
is well dened, surje tive and its kernel is W .
2
4.2. COMPLEMENTS OF LINEAR ALGEBRA 77
Theorem 3 Let V be a ve tor spa e and let L : V ! V be a linear inje tive

map. Let W be a ve tor subspa e of V su h that L(W ) W . We have that
(i)
V
W
' LL((W
V)
)
:
(ii) V and V are nite dimensional, then
If W L(V )
W V
dimK = dimK :
L(W ) L(V )
Proof: (i) Consider the sequen e,
j L(V )
0 !W ! V L! ! 0;
L(W )
where j is the in lusion homomorphism, and L is the homomorphism indu ed
by L.
Sin e L is inje tive, we have that
ker(L) = fv 2 V ; L(v) 2 L(W )g = W;
whi h implies that the above sequen e is exa t.
(ii) Consider the following hains of in lusions:
W W + L(V ) V;
and
L(W ) W \ L(V ) L(V ):
Sin e from (i) and from the hypothesis of (ii), we have that
L(V ) V
dimK = dimK < 1;
L(W ) W
we get, from Proposition 4, the following equalities:
dimK WV = dimK W +WL(V ) + dimK W +VL(V )
k k (4.6)
dimK LL((WV )) = dimK WL\(LV()V ) + dimK WL\(LW(V) ) ;
where the equality
W + L(V ) L(V )
dimK = dimK ;
W W \ L(V )
follows from Proposition 5.

Consequently, we get
V W \ L(V )
dimK = dimK < 1: (4.7)
W + L(V ) L(W )
Sin e from hypothesis, dimK L(VV ) < 1, from the hain
L(V ) W + L(V ) V;
we get
V V W + L(V )
dimK = dimK + dimK : (4.8)
L(V ) W + L(V ) L(V )
This implies, in presen e of Proposition 5 and of (4.7), that
W W + L(V )
dimK = dimK < 1: (4.9)
W \ L(V ) L(V )
From (4.7), (4.9), and from the hain below,
L(W ) W \ L(V ) W;
we get that
W W W \ L(V )
dimK = dimK + dimK < 1:
L(W ) W \ L(V ) L(W )
The result then follows from this last equality together with (4.7), (4.9)
and (4.8).
2
4.3. INTERSECTION INDICES 79
4.3 Interse tion Indi es

In this se tion we will introdu e a method to express numeri ally the order
or the degree of onta t of two algebroid plane urves. This will be done
through the fundamental notion of interse tion index.
Let K be an arbitrary eld. We will denote by M, as usual, the maximal
ideal of K [[X; Y ℄℄.
Proposition 6 Let f; g 2 M. The following onditions are equivalent.
i) f and g are relatively prime.
K [[X; Y ℄℄
ii) The dimension of
hf; gi , as a K -ve tor spa e, is nite.
Proof: The above onditions are preserved by automorphisms of K [[X; Y ℄℄
and by multipli ation of f and g by units in K [[X; Y ℄℄. Therefore, we may
assume that f and g are pseudo-polynomials.
(i) ) (ii) Sin e f and g are relatively prime in K [[X; Y ℄℄, they are relatively
prime in K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄, and therefore RY (f; g) 6= 0. So RY (f; g) = X r u, where
r 0 and u(0) 6= 0. Sin e RY (f; g) 2 hf; gi (Proposition 2.2), it follows that
RY (f; g)(0) = 0, hen e r 1 and we have X r 2 hf; gi
Suppose that degY (f ) = n, then from the Division Theorem, for all
h 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄, there exist elements q 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ and
a0 (X ); : : : ; an 1 (X ) 2 K [[X ℄℄, su h that
h = fq + a0 (X ) + + an 1 (X )Y n 1 :
From this it follows that the image h of h in K [[X; Y ℄℄=hf; gi is in the
K -ve tor spa e generated by X i Y j , 0 i r 1 and 0 j n 1. Hen e
(ii) is true.
(ii) ) (i) Suppose that f and g are not relatively prime in K [[X; Y ℄℄.
There exists h 2 K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄ non-invertible and pseudo-polynomial su h that
f = hf1 e g = hg2 :
Hen e hf; gi hhi. We have that 1; X; X 2 ; : : : are elements linearly
independent over K in K [[X; Y ℄℄=hhi , be ause otherwise, there would exist
a polynomial P (X ) 2 K [X ℄ su h that P (X ) = h1 h, h1 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄, whi h
is not possible be ause h is a pseudo-polynomial.
The result now follows be ause

K [[X; Y ℄℄ K [[X; Y ℄℄
dimK
hf; gi dimK
hhi = 1:
2
Definition Let f; g 2 M. The interse tion index of f and g is the integer
(in luding 1)
K [[X; Y ℄℄
I(f; g) = dimK
hf; gi :
In what follows we will use the notation z 0 to represent the image of
z 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ in Of .
So, it is immediate to verify that
I(f; g) = dimK
Of :
hg0 i
Definition We will say that two algebroid urves (f ) and (g) are transver-
sal, if (f ) and (g) are regular and their tangent lines are distin t.
Theorem 4 Let f; g; h 2 M, an automorphism of K [[X; Y ℄℄ and u and

v units in K [[X; Y ℄℄. The interse tion index has the following properties:
i) I(f; g) < 1 if and only if f and g are relatively prime in K [[X; Y ℄℄.
ii) I(f; g) = I(g; f ).
iii) I((f ); (g)) = I(uf; vg) = I(f; g).
iv) I(f; gh) = I(f; g) + I(f; h).
v) I(f; g) = 1 if and only if (f ) and (g) are transversal.
vi) I(f; g hf ) = I(f; g).
Proof: The rst assertion follows immediately from Proposition 6. The
assertions (ii), (iii) and (vi) follow immediately from the denition of inter-
se tion index.
We are now going to prove (iv). It is suÆ ient to prove that the following
sequen e of K -ve tor spa es is exa t,
0 ! hOhf0 i ! hgO0 hf0 i '! hOg0fi ! 0;

where the map ' is indu ed by the proje tion '~:

~ Of
Of '! hg0 i ! 0:
Noti e that
ker(') =
hg0 i :
hg0 h0 i
The map is dened by
(z 0 ) = g 0 z 0 ;
where the bar represents the residual lass modulo hh0 i, whereas the double
bar represents the residual lass modulo hh0 g0 i.
The map is learly a homomorphism of K -ve tor spa es. To prove
that is inje tive, suppose that (z 0 ) = 0 and noti e that
0 = (z 0 ) = g0 z 0 =) g0 z 0 2 hg0 h0 i:
Hen e there exists 0 2 Of su h that
g0 z 0 = 0 g0 h0 ;
whi h in turn implies that there exists 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ su h that
g (z h) = gz gh = f:
Sin e f and g have no ommon fa tors, it follows that f divides z h,
whi h shows that z 0 = 0.
To on lude the proof of (iv), observe that
hg0 i
Im( ) = 0 0 = ker('):
hg h i
Finally, we will prove property (v). Suppose that f and g are regular
with distin t tangents. Then after a linear hange of oordinates we may
assume that f = X + f1 and g = Y + g1 , where f1 ; g1 2 M2 .
We may then write
f = Xu + Y f2 ; e g = Y v + Xg2 ;
where u and v are units and f2 ; g2 2 M.
We then have
Y (v u 1 g2 f2 ) = Y v u 1 Y g2 f2 = g u 1 g2 f 2 hf; gi:
Sin e (v u 1 g2 f2 )(0; 0) = v(0; 0) 6= 0, it follows that v u 1 g2 f2 is a
unit and therefore Y 2 hf; gi. In a similar way one shows that X 2 hf; gi.
It then follows that hf; gi = hX; Y i, and therefore,
K [[X; Y ℄℄ K [[X; Y ℄℄
I(f; g) = dimK
hf; gi = dimK
hX; Y i = 1:
Conversely, if mult(f ) 2 or mult(g) 2, or also if (f ) and (g) are
regular and have the same tangent line we may, after a linear hange of
oordinates, suppose that f = Y f1 + f2 and g = Y g1 + g2 , with f2 ; g2 2 M2
and f1 ; g1 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄.
Hen e hf; gi hY i + M2 and therefore,
K [[X; Y ℄℄ K [[X; Y ℄℄ K [[X ℄℄
dimK
hf; gi dimK
hY i + M 2 = dimK
hX 2 i = 2:
2
The properties listed in Theorem 4 determine uniquely the interse tion
index of algebroid plane urves. This is the ontent of the next result.
Theorem 5 Let I0 be a map
I0 : M M ! IN [ f1g
(f; g) 7! I0(f; g)
having properties (i) to (vi), of Theorem 4. Then I0 = I.
Proof: The proof will be done by indu tion on the value of I0 (f; g).
We may assume that f; g 2 M n f0g are relatively prime in K [[X; Y ℄℄,
be ause otherwise we would have, from (i), that I0 (f; g) = I(f; g) = 1:
Moreover, if I0 (f; g) = 1 then from (v) it follows that I(f; g) = 1.
Suppose by indu tion hypothesis that:
I0 (f; g) r 1 =) I0 (f; g) = I(f; g):
Let f; g 2 M n f0g su h that I0 (f; g) = r. Let be an automorphism
of K [[X; Y ℄℄ su h that (f ) and (g) are asso iated respe tively to pseudo-
polynomials p and q. From property (iii) we have that
I0 (f; g) = I0 (p; q); I(f; g) = I(p; q):
Suppose that degY (p) = n and degY (q) = m. From property (ii) we may
assume that n m. Dene
q1 = q Y m n p = Xq2 ;
where q2 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄.
If q2 is a unit, then from properties (iii),(iv) and (vi), we have that
I0 (p; q) = I0 (p; q1 ) = I0 (p; Xq2 ) = I0 (p; X ) = I0 (Y n ; X ) = n:
In the same way, one shows that I(p; q) = n, and therefore, I0 (p; q) = I(p; q).
Suppose that q2 is not a unit, then from properties (vi) and (iv), and by
the indu tive assumption we have that
r = I0 (p; q) = I0 (p; q1 ) = I0 (p; X ) + I0 (p; q2 ) = I(p; X ) + I(p; q2 ) = I(p; q);
sin e I0 (p; X ) r 1 and I0 (p; q2 ) r 1:
This implies that
I0 (f; g) = I(f; g):
2
The above theorem is an exe utable algorithm to ompute I(f; g) for all
pair of power series f and g in M whi h are pseudo-polynomials.
Example We will nd the interse tion index of Y 7 X 2 and Y 5 X 3 .
I(Y 7 X 2 ; Y 5 X 3 ) = I(Y 7 X2 Y 2 (Y 5 X 3 ); Y 5 X 3 ) =
I(X 2 (XY 2 1); Y 5 X 3 ) = I(X 2 ; Y 5 X 3 ) = 2I(X; Y 5 X 3 ) = 2I(X; Y 5 ) =
10 I(X; Y ) = 10:
Theorem 6 Let f and g be pseudo-polynomials in K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄. Let
f = f1 fr ;
be the de omposition of f into irredu ible fa tors, whi h we may suppose that
are pseudo-polynomials. Then
r
X
I(f; g) = vfi (g) = mult(RY (f; g)):
i=1
Proof: If f and g have ommon omponents, we have nothing to prove

sin e the above three terms are innite. Suppose now that f and g have no
ommon fa tors.
Sin e from property (iv) of Theorem 4, and from Problem 2.4.2, we have
that r
X
I(f; g) = I(fi ; g);
i=1
and r
Y
RY (f; g) = RY (fi ; g);
i=1
It will be suÆ ient to prove that if f is irredu ible, then
I(f; g) = vf (g) = mult(RY (f; g)):
Consider the K -linear map
L : K [[T ℄℄ ! K [[T ℄℄
h(T ) 7 h(T )g(T n ; '(T ))
!
where n = degY (f ) and (T n ; '(T )) is a Puiseux parametrization of f . Sin e
f is not a omponent of g, it follows from Proposition 2 that g(T n ; '(T )) 6= 0,
and therefore L is inje tive.
Let W be the K -ve tor subspa e A' = K [[T n ; '(T )℄℄ (' Of ) of V =
K [[T ℄℄.
We have that
Of ' A' W
hg i g(T ; '(T ))R' L(W ) :
0 n =
On the other hand,
V K [[T ℄℄
= :
L(V ) hg(T n ; '(T ))i
From the orollary of Theorem 2 we have that
V
dimK < 1;
W
and sin e
V
dimK = mult(g(T n ; '(T ))) < 1;
L(V )
it follows from Theorem 3 that

O
I(f; g) = dimK 0f = dimK
W
= dimK
V
= vf (g):
hg i L(W ) L(V )
On the other hand, if is a primitive nth root of unity, from Proposition
2.3,
n
Y 1
RY (f; g) = g(X; '( i X n )):
i=1
Hen e
1
mult(RY (f; g)) = n:mult(g(X; '(X n ))) = mult(g(T n ; '(T ))):
2
Theorem 7 Let f; g 2 M. We have that
I(f; g) mult(f ) mult(g);
with equality if and only if (f ) and (g) have no ommon tangents.
Proof: Let f = f1 fr and g = g1 gs , be respe tively the de omposi-
tions of f and g into irredu ible fa tors.
From Theorem 4 (ii) and (iv), we have that
X
I(f; g) = I(fi ; gj ): (4.10)
i;j
On the other hand, sin e mult(h1 h2 ) = mult(h1 ) + mult(h2 ), we have
that X
mult(f ) mult(g) = mult(fi ) mult(gj ): (4.11)
i;j
Therefore, from (4.10) and (4.11), it follows that it is suÆ ient to prove
the theorem for f and g irredu ible.
Suppose that oordinates have been hosen in su h a way that f and g
are asso iated to pseudo-polynomials in K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄ and that (f ) has Y as its
tangent line.
Let (T n ; '(T )), where n = mult(f ), be a Puiseux parametrization of (f ).
Sin e Y is the tangent line of (f ), re all from (3.6) that mult('(T )) > n.
Suppose now that
g(X; Y ) = (aX + bY )m + gm+1 (X; Y ) + ;
where gm+1 (X; Y ) + 2 Mm+1 . Then we have that

I(f; g) = mult((aT n + b'(T ))m + gm+1 (T n ; '(T )) + ) nm;
with equality if and only if a 6= 0; that is, the tangent line of (g) is not Y ,
or equivalently, if the tangent lines of (f ) and g are distin t.
2
The interse tion index of two urves is easily and ee tively omputable,
either by means of Theorem 4, or by means of Theorem 6, when either both
urves are given in artesian form or one of them in artesian form and the
other in parametri form. In Chapter 8 we will show how to ompute the
interse tion index when both urves are given in parametri form.
Problems
3.1) Compute the interse tion indi es of the following pairs of urves:
a) (Y 2 X 3 ) and (Y 2 X 5 ).
b) (Y 2 X 3 ) and (X 2 Y 3 ).
) ((X 2 + Y 2 )2 (X 2 Y 2 )) and ((X 2 + Y 2 )2 + (X 2 Y 2 )).
d) Compute the interse tion indi es of the urves of Se tion 3.3, taken by
pairs.
3.2) Let f = Y 4 2X 3 Y 2 4X 5 Y X 6 X 7 . Denote by fY(i) the partial
derivative of order i of f with respe t to the indeterminate Y . Compute
I(f; fY(1) ), I(f; fY(2) ) and I(f; fY(3) ).
Chapter 5
RESOLUTION OF
SINGULARITIES
In this hapter we will be on erned with the pro ess of resolution of sin-
gularities of irredu ible plane algebroid urves. In the analyti ontext, this
pro ess onsists in transforming a germ of an analyti bran h into a non-
singular germ, by means of a nite sequen e of ertain birational trans-
formations. This te hnique was introdu ed by Max Noether, the father of
Algebrai Geometry, in the nineteenth entury.
In order to motivate our study, we will introdu e the subje t in the more
geometri ontext of germs of analyti plane urves, and then develop it in
the ontext of formal geometry.
5.1 Quadrati Transformations in CI 2

Definition A quadrati transformation or a blowing-up entered at the
origin of CI 2 is a map whi h in some oordinate system of CI 2 is of the form:
T: CI 2 ! CI 2
(X1 ; Y1 ) 7 (X; Y ) = (X1 ; X1 Y1)
!
The line E : X1 = 0 is alled the ex eptional divisor of the blowing-up

and it is equal to T 1 (0; 0).
Let L : Y aX = 0 be a line through the origin of CI 2 , then T 1 (L)
is the union of the ex eptional divisor E and the line Y1 = a, whi h uts
87
88 CHAPTER 5. RESOLUTION OF SINGULARITIES
E in the point of oordinates (0; a). Hen e, the points of the ex eptional
divisor orrespond to the dire tions through the origin of CI 2 , ex epting the
dire tion of the Y axis.
The transformation T indu es an analyti automorphism of CI 2 n E .
Let Cf be a germ of an analyti urve dened by an element f 2 M
CI fX; Y g. Let us see what is the set T 1 (Cf ). Suppose that the expansion
of f in homogeneous polynomials is given by
f (X; Y ) = Fn (X; Y ) + Fn+1 (X; Y ) +
So, the equation of T 1 (Cf ) is given by the series
f (T (X1 ; Y1 )) = Fn (X1 ; X1 Y1 ) + Fn+1 (X1 ; X1 Y1 ) +
= X1n (Fn (1; Y1 ) + X1 Fn+1 (1; Y1 ) + );
whi h will be alled the total transform of f , whose asso iated urve T 1 (Cf )
will be alled the total transform of Cf .
The urve Cf (1) , determined by the equation f (1) (X1 ; Y1 ) = 0, where
f (1) (X1 ; Y1 ) = Fn (1; Y1 ) + X1 Fn+1 (1; Y1 ) + + X1j n Fj (1; Y1 ) + ;
is alled the stri t transform of Cf . Sin e T 1 (0; 0) is the ex eptional divisor,
with equation E : X1 = 0, we have that
T 1 (Cf ) = E [ Cf (1) :
Example 1 Consider the urve Cf where f = Y 2 a2 X 2 X 3 = 0,
with a 6= 0. Sin e the urve is dened by a polynomial, we will not have
onvergen e problems and therefore it is globally dened in all CI 2 .
The total transform of Cf is
T 1 (Cf ) : X12 Y12 a2 X12 X13 = X12 (Y12 a2 X1 ) = 0;
whereas the stri t transform of Cf is given by Cf (1) : Y12 a2 X1 = 0.
Noti e that the tangent lines of Cf at the origin, given by
Y 2 a2 X 2 = (Y aX )(Y + aX ) = 0;
have as stri t transforms two horizontal lines whi h pass through the points
P1 = (0; a) and P2 = (0; a), whi h are pre isely the points of interse tion
of Cf (1) with E (see the gure below).
5.1. QUADRATIC TRANSFORMATIONS IN CI 2 89
Noti e that after one blowing-up, the urve Cf is transformed into a

smooth urve Cf (1) and its two bran hes through the origin are transformed
into portions of the urve passing through the points P1 and P2 .
Example 2 Consider the urve Cf , where f = Y 2 X 3 = 0. Here again
we have a urve dened globally in CI 2 .
T 1 (Cf ) : X12 Y12 X13 = X12 (Y12 X1 ) = 0;
whereas the stri t transform of Cf is given by Cf (1) : Y12 X1 = 0, whi h
has the verti al line X1 = 0 as a tangent line in the origin.
Observe that also here after one blowing-up we su eeded to transform

Cf into a smooth urve Cf (1) , and sin e Cf has only one bran h through the
origin, it is transformed into the unique bran h of Cf (1) at the origin.
Example 3 Consider the urve Cf where f = Y 2 X 5 . Here again we
have a urve dened globally in CI 2 .
T 1 (Cf ) : X12 Y12 X15 = X12 (Y12 X13 ) = 0;
whereas the stri t transform of Cf is given by Cf (1) : Y12 X13 = 0, whi h

has as a tangent line the line Y1 = 0. Noti e that the urve Cf (1) is the
urve Cf of the previous example, and therefore with one more blowing-up
we transform it into the parabola Y22 X2 = 0.
Some of the fa ts pointed out in the above examples always happen. For
example, we will show that after a nite number of blowing-ups, it is possible
to transform any algebroid irredu ible plane urve into an algebroid regular
urve. This pro edure will be alled the resolution of the singularities of the
urve, whi h will allow to study a singularity transforming it into several
simpler singularities.
5.2 Resolution of Singularities of Plane Curves

From now on, K will be an arbitrary algebrai ally losed eld.
Definition The quadrati transformation from the ring K [[X; Y ℄℄ into
the ring K [[X1 ; Y1 ℄℄ is the homomorphism of K -algebras dened by
: K [[X; Y ℄℄ ! K [[X1 ; Y1 ℄℄
X 7! X1
Y 7 ! X1 Y1
or by
: K [[X; Y ℄℄ ! K [[X1 ; Y1 ℄℄
X 7! X1 Y1
Y 7! Y1
These transformations are not invertible, but they are birational; that is,
they dene isomorphisms between K ((X; Y )) and K ((X1 ; Y1 )), respe tively
the elds of fra tions of K [[X; Y ℄℄ and K [[X1 ; Y1 ℄℄.
5.2. RESOLUTION OF SINGULARITIES OF PLANE CURVES 91
The homomorphism transforms the ideal hX; Y i into the ideal

hX1 ; X1 Y1i = hX1 i:
When we are working with the ring CI fX; Y g, this geometri ally orre-
sponds to the ondition T 1 (0; 0) = E of the previous se tion.
The transform by of
f (X; Y ) = Fn (X; Y ) + Fn+1 (X; Y ) + 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄;
is the element of K [[X1 ; Y1 ℄℄ dened by
(f ) = f (X1 ; X1 Y1 ) = Fn (X1 ; X1 Y1 ) + Fn+1 (X1 ; X1 Y1 ) +
= X1n (Fn (1; Y1 ) + X1 Fn+1 (1; Y1 ) + ) :
The series
1 1
(f ) = n (f ) = n f (X1 ; X1 Y1 );
X1 X1
where n = mult(f ), will be alled the stri t transform by of (f ), and will
be denoted also by f (1) .
Proposition 1 Let f; g 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄.
i) (f ) is invertible in K [[X1 ; Y1 ℄℄ if, and only if, f is regular in X ;
that is, the initial form of f is of the form Fn = ( X n + ), where
2 K nf0g and n is a non-negative integer (the ase n = 0 orresponds
to f invertible in K [[X; Y ℄℄).
ii) (fg) = (f ) (g).
iii) mult( (f )) mult(f ).
iv) If f is a Weierstrass polynomial in K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄ of degree n with tangent
one (Y n ), then (f ) is a pseudo-polynomial of degree n in Y .
v) If f is irredu ible, then either (f ) is irredu ible or a unit.
Proof: If we write f = Fn (X; Y )+ Fn+1 (X; Y )+ , then we have (f ) =
Fn (1; Y1 ) + X1 Fn+1 (1; Y1 ) + .
(i) So, (f ) is a unit if and only if Fn (1; 0) is a non-zero onstant. This in
turn is equivalent to say that Fn (X; Y ) = ( X n + ), where 2 K .
(ii) This follows easily from the denition of .
(iii) In Fn (1; Y1 ) there are monomials of degree less or equal than n =

mult(f ). The result follows by observing that these monomials annot an-
el with other monomials of (f ), be ause the latter are all multiple of X1 .
(iv) Let f = Y n + a1 (X )Y n 1 + + an (X ) be a Weierstrass polynomial
with tangent one (Y n ); that is mult(ai (X )) > i. Sin e,
a (X ) a (X )
(f ) = Y1n + 1 1 Y1n 1 + + n n 1 ;
X1 X1
and !
a (X )
mult i i 1 > 0;
X1
the result follows.
(v) Sin e f is irredu ible, from the Unitangent Lemma we must have either
f regular in X or regular in Y . When f is regular in Y but not regular in
X , then the tangent one of (f ) is of the form (Y n ).
If f is regular in X , then from (i) we get that (f ) is a unit. So it is
suÆ ient to show that if we assume f irredu ible with tangent one (Y n )
and (f ) redu ible, then we get a ontradi tion. Let's assume that f is so.
From (i) and (ii) we have that if f and g are asso iated, then (f )
and (g) are asso iated. Hen e we may assume that f is a Weierstrass
polynomial in Y . From (iv) we have that (f ) is a pseudo-polynomial of
degree n. Sin e (f ) is redu ible in K [[X; Y ℄℄, from Lemmas 2.3 and 2.4,
it fa tors into a produ t of irredu ible pseudo-polynomials. Let h be an
irredu ible pseudo-polynomial of degree 0 < r < n that divides (f ), hen e
X r h(X; Y=X ) would be a non-trivial fa tor of f , a ontradi tion.
2
Remark that if f 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ is irredu ible and su h that (f ) is not
a unit, then f is regular in Y with tangent one (Y n ); that is, f may be
written as
f = a0 (X )Y n + a1 (X )Y n 1 + + an (X ) + Y n+1 h(X; Y );
with ai (X ) 2 K [[X ℄℄, mult(ai (X )) > i, a0 (0) 6= 0 and h 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄.
Proposition 2 Let f 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ be an irredu ible power series with tan-
gent one (Y n ). Suppose that I(f; Y ) = m. Then
(i) I( (f ); Y1 ) = m n and I( (f ); X1 ) = n.
ii) If m n n, then mult( (f )) = mult(f ) = n. Moreover, if m n > n,

then ( (f )) has tangent one (Y1n ); and if m n = n, then neither
(X1 ) nor (Y1 ) are the tangent lines of ( (f )).
iii) If m n < n, then mult( (f )) = m n < mult(f ) and (f ) has
tangent one (X1m n ).
Proof: Sin e f is regular of order n in Y , we may write it as follows:
where a0 (0) 6= 0, h(X; Y ) 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄, and mult(an (X )) = I(f; Y ) = m.
From Lemma 3.5 we also have that
m
mult(ai (X )) i :
n
Now,
(f ) = b0 (X1 )Y1n + b1 (X1 )Y1n 1 + + bn (X1 ) + X1 Y1n+1 h(X1 ; X1 Y1 );
where
ai (X1 )
bi (X1 ) = :
X1i
So, we have that b0 (X1 ) = a0 (X1 ) and
m m n
mult(bi (X1 )) = mult(ai (X1 )) i i i=i : (5.1)
n n
(i) From (3.6) we have that m > n be ause the tangent one of (f ) is (Y n ).
Sin e b0 (X1 ) is a unit and i mn n > 0, for i 1, it follows from (5.1) that
I( (f ); X1 ) = I(b0 (X1 )Y1n ; X1 ) = I(Y1n ; X1 ) = n:
On the other hand,
I( (f ); Y1 ) = I(bn (X1 ); Y1 ) = mult(bn (X1 )) = mult(an (X1 )) n = m n:
(ii) If m n n, then from (5.1) it follows that mult(bi (X1 )) i and sin e
b0 (0) 6= 0, we have that mult( (f )) = n = mult(f ).
Now, if m n > n, then from (5.1), mult(bi (X1 )) > i, showing that (Y1n )
is the tangent one of (f ).
On the other hand, if m n = n, then the tangent line of (f ) has as

summands at least the two terms of lower order in b0 (X1 )Y n and in bn (X1 ).
This shows that neither (Y1 ) nor (X1 ) are the tangent lines of ( (f )).
(iii) Suppose that n < m < 2n. Sin e
m 2n m 2n
mult(bi (X1 )Y1n i ) i +n>n + n = m n;
n n
we have that mult( (f )) = m n and that (X1m n ) is the tangent one of
( (f )).
2
Similarly, we may dene the notion of stri t transform (f ) of f , and
prove results analogous to those of the above propositions, inter hanging the
roles of X and Y .
The following result will be applied often.
Lemma 1 Let f 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ be irredu ible of multipli ity n and regular in Y .
There exists an automorphism of K [[X; Y ℄℄ su h that (f ) is irredu ible
of multipli ity n, regular in Y and su h that I((f ); Y ) is not a multiple of
n.
Proof: Sin e f is irredu ible and regular of order n in Y , we may write
where a0 (0) 6= 0, h(X; Y ) 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄, and I(f; Y ) = mult(an (X )). From
Lemma 3.5 we also have that
I(f; Y )
mult(ai (X )) i :
n
If n doesn't divide I(f; Y ), then just take = Id.
Suppose now that I(f; Y ) = nr, for some integer r 1. Let be a
parameter in K and dene
1 (X; Y ) = (X; Y + X r ):
We then have
1 (f ) = a0 (X )(Y + X r )n + a1 (X )(Y + X r )n 1 + + an (X )+
(Y + X r )n+1 h(X; Y + X r );
and sin e
I(f; Y )
mult(ai (X )) i = ir;
n
it follows that we may write
1 (f ) = b0 ( ; X )Y n +b1 ( ; X )Y n 1 + +bn( ; X )+P ( )X nr +Y n+1 h0 ( ; X; Y );
with b0 ( ; 0) = a0 (0) 6= 0,
(
mult(bi ( ; X ))
ir; if 1 i n 1
> nr; if i = n;
and P ( ) is a polynomial of degree n in .
Let 0 2 K be su h that P ( 0 ) = 0, then
1 (f ) = b0 (X )Y n + b1 (X )Y n 1 + + bn (X ) + Y n+1 h00 (X; Y );
where bi (X ) = bi ( 0 ; X ), for 0 = 1; : : : ; n, and h00 (X; Y ) = h0 ( 0 ; X; Y ). So,
1 (f ) is irredu ible, regular in Y and su h that mult(bn (X )) > nr.
If n doesn't divide mult(bn (X )), we are done, sin e I(1 (f ); Y ) is equal
to mult(bn (X )). Otherwise, we repeat the above pro ess obtaining an auto-
morphism 2 su h that
2 (f ) = 0 (X )Y n + 1 (X )Y n 1 + + n (X ) + Y n+1 h00 (X; Y );
with 0 (0) 6= 0 and mult( n (X )) > mult(bn (X )).
This pro ess must stop at some stage be ause otherwise we would get an
automorphism su h that
(f ) = a00 (X )Y n + a01 (X )Y n 1 + + a0n 1 (X )Y + Y n+1 h~ (X; Y );
whi h is redu ible; a ontradi tion.
2
Proposition 3 Let (f ) be irredu ible with tangent one (Y n ). Let f (1) =
(f ) and f (i) = (f (i 1) ). If n doesn't divide m := I(f; Y ), then
n o
m
= min i; mult(f (i) ) 6= mult(f ) :
n
Proof: Sin e n doesn't divide m,by the eu lidian algorithm we have m =

m
nq + r, with 0 < r < n and q = . Now, from Proposition 2 we have that
n
mult(f (q) ) 6= mult(f (q 1) ) = mult(f ):
2
We are now ready to des ribe the pro ess of resolution of singularities
for an irredu ible algebroid plane urve.
Assume that f 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ is irredu ible of multipli ity n, regular in Y
and su h that n doesn't divide m = I(f; Y ). We use the notation f (1) =
(f ) and f (i) = (f (i 1) ), for i = 1; : : : ; q = [m=n℄. Put n0 = mult(f (q) ),
then we have that n0 < n. If n0 = 1 we stop. Otherwise, from Proposition 2
(iii) we have that f (q) is power series regular of order n0 > 1 in the indeter-
minate Xq . Let m0 = I(f (q) ; Xq ) and put q0 = [m0 =n0 ℄. If m0 is a multiple of
n0 , then by Lemma 1 we may hange oordinates by an automorphism of
K [[X; Y ℄℄ in order that m0 is no more divisible by n0. We still denote (f (q) )
by f (q) . We then dene
f (q+1) = (f (q) );
and
f (i) = (f (i 1) ); i = q + 2; : : : ; q + q0 :
Now, either n00 = mult(f (q+q0 ) ) = 1, and we stop; or from the analog
of Proposition 2 (iii) we have that f (q+q0) is a regular power series of order
n00 > 1 in the indeterminate Yq+q0 , to whi h we ontinue to apply the above
pro ess, using this time. Sin e the multipli ities are de reasing at some
point we get a regular urve (f (N ) ).
The sequen e f; f (1) ; : : : ; f (N ) is alled the anoni al resolution of (f ).
We have proved the following result:
Theorem 1 The anoni al resolution of an irredu ible algebroid plane urve
leads after nitely many steps to a non-singular algebroid plane urve.
The anoni al resolution of (f ) determines the numeri al sequen e
mult(f ) mult(f (1) ) mult(f (i) ) mult(f (N ) ) = 1;
of great importan e in this theory, alled the multipli ity sequen e of (f ).
We say that two plane bran hes are equiresoluble if their multipli ity
sequen es are equal.
5.3. NOETHER'S FORMULA 97
Example 4 We will determine the anoni al resolution of f = Y 4 X 7 . In

the present ase, we have that f (1) = (f ) = Y14 X13 . Therefore, applying
to f (1) , we get f (2) = Y2 X23 , whi h is not singular. The multipli ity
sequen e in this ase is (4; 3; 1) (see gure below).
.
Problems
2.1) Resolve the singularities of the urves given below and determine their
multipli ity sequen es.
a) Y 5 X 8 .
b) Y 4 2X 3 Y 2 4X 5 Y X6 X 7.
5.3 Noether's formula

In this se tion we will present a useful formula due to Max Noether that re-
lates the interse tion index of two urves with that of their stri t transforms.
Let f 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ be irredu ible of multipli ity n and regular in Y .
We know from Se tion 3.4 that f has a Puiseux parametrization (T n ; '(T ))
with m = mult('(T )) > n. A ording to Lemma 1, performing a hange of
oordinates, if ne essary, we may assume that m is not a multiple of n.
Consider
f (1) (X1 ; Y1 ) := (f ) = X1 n f (X1 ; X1 Y1 ):
Sin e f (1) (X1 ; Y1 ) is regular in Y1 of order n, and

(1) '(T )
f T ; n = (T n ) n f (T n; '(T )) = 0;
n
T
it follows that
'(T )
(T n ; (T )) = T n;
Tn
is a Puiseux parametrization of f (1) = (f ). Hen e, for g 2 K [[X1 ; Y1 ℄℄, we
always have
I( (f ); g) = mult (g(T n ; (T ))) :
Re all now that the lo al ring Of inje ts into K [[T ℄℄ by means of the
homomorphism
H' : Of ! A' K [[T ℄℄:
g 7! g(T n ; '(T ))
For the same reason, the lo al ring Of (1) inje ts into K [[T ℄℄ by means of
the homomorphism
H : Of (1) ! A K [[T ℄℄:
g 7! g(T n ; (T ))
We will see in the next proposition that the lo al ring of an irredu ible
algebroid plane urve inje ts naturally into the lo al ring of its blow-up.
Proposition 4 Let f 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ be irredu ible with tangent one (Y n ).
Then there is a natural inje tive homomorphism whi h makes the diagram
below ommutative

Of ,! Of (1)
k k
Id
A' ,! A
Proof: Let
: Of ! Of (1) ;
g(X; Y ) !
7 g(X1 ; X1 Y1 )
where the overlines have the obvious meaning. Suppose that the multipli ity
of f is n. The map is well dened and inje tive be ause, from Proposition
4.1, it may be viewed as a homomorphism of K [[X ℄℄-module
: K [[X ℄℄ K [[X ℄℄yn 1 ! K [[X ℄℄ K [[X ℄℄y1n 1 ;
g(X; y) 7 g(X; Xy1 )
!
whi h is learly well dened and inje tive.
Now, let g(X; Y ) 2 Of , then
H (g) = H (g(X; Xy1 )) = g(T n ; T n (T )) = g(T n ; '(T )):
5.3. NOETHER'S FORMULA 99
On the other hand,

Id(H' (g)) = g(T n ; '(T ));
whi h proves the assertion.
2
Proposition 5 Let (f ) and (g ) be two algebroid plane urves with f irre-
du ible. Then we have
I(f; g) = mult(f ) mult(g) + I(f (1) ; g(1) ):

Proof: Denote by n and n0 respe tively the multipli ities of f and g.
We may hange oordinates in su h a way that f be omes regular in Y .
Let (T n ; '(T )) be a Puiseux parametrization of (f ), then (T n ; 'T(Tn ) ) is a
primitive parametrization of f (1) . So we have

I(f (1) ; g(1) ) = mult (T n1)n0 g T n; T n 'T(Tn ) = n n0 + vf (g) =
mult(f ):mult(g) + I(f; g);
whi h proves the result.
2
Let f and g be two algebroid irredu ible plane urves. With a nite
sequen e, say of length N , of blowing-ups of either type , or , we are led
ne essarily to the situation in whi h f (N ) and g(N ) have distin t tangents.
This observation, together with Proposition 5 and Theorem 4.7, proves a
lassi al formula due to Max Noether, whose statement we give below.
Theorem 2 (Noether's formula) Let f and g be two irredu ible alge-
broid plane urves. We have that
N
X
I(f; g) = mult(f (i) )mult(g(i) );
i=0
where f (0) = f and g(0) = g.

Chapter 6
SEMIGROUPS OF PLANE
BRANCHES
In this hapter we will introdu e the semigroup of values of an algebroid
irredu ible plane urve. This is an invariant under the equivalen e of urves
and was lassi ally re ognized as the lassifying topologi al invariant in the
ase of germs of omplex analyti irredu ible plane urves1 . We will relate
this semigroup to the hara teristi integers, to the Puiseux pairs and to
other numeri al invariant of the urve. This will give us tools to ompute
su h semigroups.
6.1 Semigroups of the naturals

Let G 6= f0g be a subset of IN, ontaining the element 0. We say that G is
a semigroup in IN if it is losed under addition. In this se tion we will study
semigroups under a stri tly arithmeti al point of view.
The element min(G n f0g) will be alled the multipli ity of G, and will
be denoted by mult(G).
If x0 ; : : : ; xr 2 IN, then the set
hx0; : : : ; xr i = f0 x0 + + r xr ; 1 ; : : : ; r 2 INg
is a semigroup in IN, alled the semigroup generated by x0 ; : : : ; xr . The
elements x0 ; : : : ; xr are alled generators for G.
1 See for example [BK℄.
101
102 CHAPTER 6. SEMIGROUPS OF PLANE BRANCHES
For example, we have

h3i = f0; 3; 6; 9; : : : g;
and
h3; 5i = f0; 3; 5; 6; 8; 9; 10; 11; : : : g:
Proposition 1 Given any semigroup G in IN, there exists a unique nite
set of elements v0 ; : : : ; vg in G su h that
i) v0 < < vg , and vi 6 vj mod v0 , for i 6= j ,
ii) G = hv0 ; : : : ; vg i,
iii) fv0 ; : : : ; vg g is ontained in any set of generators of G.
Proof: The elements v0 ; : : : ; vg are dened indu tively as follows. Put
v0 = mult(G) and dene
v1 = min (G n hv0 i) :
It is lear that v0 6 v1 mod v0 , be ause otherwise v1 would be in hv0 i,
Dene for i 2,
vi = min (G n hv0 ; : : : ; vi 1 i) :
It is lear that vi 6 vj mod v0 , for j < i, be ause otherwise vi would be
in hv0 ; : : : ; vi 1 i, whi h is a ontradi tion.
Sin e vi 6 vj mod v0 , for i 6= j , then for some g < v0 , we must have
G = hv0 ; : : : ; vg i:
It is now easy to he k that v0 ; : : : ; vg satisfy onditions (i) and (iii) in
the statement of the proposition.
2
The set fv0 ; : : : ; vg g of Proposition 1 will be alled the minimal system of
generators of G, and the integer g will be alled the genus of the semigroup
G (noti e that g mult(G) 1).
Given a semigroup in IN, the elements of IN n G are alled the gaps of G.
6.1. SEMIGROUPS OF THE NATURALS 103
A semigroup may have nitely or innitely many gaps. For example

the semigroup h3i has innitely many gaps, while the gaps of h3; 5i are the
integers 1; 2; 4 and 7.
When the number of gaps of G is nite, there exists a unique element
2 G, alled the ondu tor of G, su h that
a) 1 62 G
b) if z 2 IN and z , then z 2 G.
If n > 1, then obviously the semigroup hni has no ondu tor, sin e no
element m 2 IN with m 6 0 mod n is in hni.
Proposition 2 Let G be a semigroup in IN. The following assertions are

equivalent
i) G has a ondu tor,
ii) The elements of G have GCD equal to one,
iii) There exist two onse utive integers in G.
Proof: (i) =) (ii) Sin e G hGCD(G)i, it is lear that, if G has a
ondu tor, then GCD(G) = 1.
(ii) =) (iii) Let v0 ; : : : ; vg be the minimal system of generators of G. Then
learly GCD(G) = 1 implies GCD(v0 ; : : : ; vg ) = 1. So, in this ase, there
exist integers 0 ; : : : ; g su h that
0 v0 + + g vg = 1:
Transferring to the se ond member the terms with the i 's negative, the
result follows immediately.
(iii) =) (i) Let a and a + 1 be two elements in G, then the set
f0; a + 1; 2(a + 1); : : : ; (a 1)(a + 1)g
is a omplete residue system, modulo a. So, any integer n (a 1)(a + 1)
may be written as
n = i(a + 1) + ja; i = 0; : : : ; (a 1); j 0;
whi h implies that G has a ondu tor (a 1)(a + 1).
2
Noti e that in the proof of the proposition we got the estimate

(a 1)(a + 1) for the ondu tor of G, when a and a + 1 are elements of G.
Let G = hx0 ; : : : ; xr i be a semigroup in IN with ondu tor . We dene
below two sequen es of natural numbers asso iated to the set of generators
x0 ; : : : ; xr of G.
Put e0 = x0 and n0 = 1. For i = 1; : : : ; r, dene
e
ei = GCD(x0 ; : : : ; xi ) and ni = i 1 :
ei
From the denition of the ei 's it is lear that ei jei 1 , for all i = 1; : : : ; r,
and also er = GCD(x0 ; : : : ; xr ) = 1.
Problems
1.1) Let x0 ; x1 ; ; xr be a set of generators of a semigroup with ondu -

tor. Let the ni 's and ei 's be as dened in this se tion. Show that x0 =
n1 n2 ni ei . In parti ular, x0 = n1 nr . Show also that ei = ni+1 : : : nr .
6.2 Semigroups of Values

From now on, f will denote an irredu ible element in M K [[X; Y ℄℄. Hen e,
the ring Of = K [[X; Y ℄℄=hf i will be a domain. Let v = vf the valuation
asso iated to f , as dened in Chapter 4.
To simplify notation, we will denote the residual lass of Y modulo hf i
by y and that of X by x or also by X , sin e this will not ause any onfusion.
Definition The semigroup of values asso iated to the urve (f ) is the set
S (f ) = fI(f; g); g 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ n hf ig IN:
A straightforward veri ation, by means of Theorem 4.4, shows that the
set S (f ) is ee tively a semigroup in IN and that two equivalent algebroid
plane urves have the same semigroup of values.
The semigroup of values S (f ) may also be viewed as follows. Let f
be an irredu ible power series in K [[X; Y ℄℄, regular in Y with the Puiseux
parametrization (T n ; '(T )). Let H' the homomorphism we dened in Se -
tion 4.1. Then one has
S (f ) = fvf (g ); g 2 Of n f0gg = fmultT (H' (g )); g 2 Of n f0gg =
6.2. SEMIGROUPS OF VALUES 105
fmultT (h); h 2 A' n f0gg :

Two plane bran hes (f ) and (g) will be alled equisingular if S (f ) = S (g).
It is lear that if (f ) and (g) are equivalent, then they are equisingular.
The semigroup of values of a plane bran h has a ondu tor. In fa t, sin e
equivalent bran hes have same semigroup, we may assume that the bran h
is represented by a Weierstrass polynomial f , so from Theorem 4.2 we have
that any element in K [[T ℄℄ of multipli ity greater than multT (DY (f )(T n ))
is already in A' , hen e its multipli ity is in S (f ).
Alternatively, this also follows from the observation we made in Se tion
4.1, before Theorem 4.2, that the eld of fra tions of A' is K ((T )). Indeed,
there exist h1 ; h2 2 A' su h that T = h1 =h2 , so mult(h1 ) = mult(h2 ) + 1,
whi h in view of Proposition 2, implies that S (f ) has a ondu tor.
Example 1 If f = Y 2 X 3 , we have that
S (f ) = f0; 2; 3; 4; 5; : : : g:
Indeed, v(x) = I(f; X ) = 2 and v(y) = I(f; Y ) = 3. Sin e any natural
number l 2 may be written as l = r 2 + s 3, with r; s 2 IN, it follows that
l = v(xr ys) 2 S (f ). The ondu tor of S (f ) is 2.
Example 2 If f = Y 2 X 5 , we have that
S (f ) = f0; 2; 4; 5; : : : g:
Indeed, v(x) = I(f; X ) = 2, v(y) = I(f; Y ) = 5. Now, it is easy to write
any natural number l 4 as l = r 2 + s 5, with r; s 2 IN, and therefore
l = v(xr ys) 2 S (f ). The ondu tor in this ase is 4.
Example 3 Let f = Y 4 X 7 . Sin e P X = T 4 and Y = T 7 is a Puiseux
parametrization of (f ), then given g = i;j ai;j X i Y j 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄, we have
that X
vf (g ) = mult( ai;j T 4i+7j ) = 4r + 7s;
i;j
for some natural numbers r and s. This shows that S (f ) is generated by 4
and 7. Therefore,
S (f ) = f0; 4; 7; 8; 11; 12; 14; 15; 16; 18; 19 : : : g;
with ondu tor 18.
How one an, in general, determine the semigroup S (f )? This is not a

priori an easy question to answer and an important part of this hapter will
be devoted to it.
The least element of S (f ) nf0g is the integer mult(f ) sin e from Theorem
4.7, we have that v(g ) = I(f; g) mult(f ), for all g 2 M K [[X; Y ℄℄,
and if (L) is a line not belonging to the tangent one of (f ), we have that
v(L) = mult(f ).
To study the semigroup of values of a plane bran h (f ), we will assume
that har(K ) = 0 and that oordinates have been hosen in order that f is
regular in Y and the tangent one of (f ) is (Y n ). So, f is of the form
with a0 (0) 6= 0 and mult(ai ) > i. In parti ular, we have that an (X ) =
X m + , with m > n. We also will hoose oordinates su h that m is not
a multiple of n (see Lemma 5.1).
Let (
X = Tn P
Y = '(T ) = im bi T i ; bm 6= 0; m > n;
with m and n as above, be a Puiseux parametrization of (f ).
Remark 1 In the above situation we have that
m = min(S (f ) n hni):
P Indeed, m 2 S (f ), be ause v (y) = m. On the other hand, if g =

; a; X Y 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄, then
X
I(f; g) = mult( a; T n '(T ) ):
;
From this, it is lear that min(S (f ) n hni) m, and sin e I(f; Y ) = m, the
equality follows.
So, if v0 ; v1 ; : : : ; vg represent the minimal system of generators of S (f ),
we have, in this ase, that v0 = n and v1 = m.
If we denote by 0 ; 1 ; : : : the hara teristi exponents of the above
Puiseux parametrization of (f ), we have that 0 = n and 1 = m. We
will still denote by j and "j the integers orresponding to the hara teristi
exponents as dened in Se tion 3.4.
Re all that we denoted the group of the rth roots of 1 in K by Ur . For

j = 0; : : : , we put
Gj = U"j = f 2 K j "j = 1g;
hen e
Un = G0 G1 G = f1g:
Lemma 1 If 2 Gj n Gj+1, then j+1 6= 1.
Proof: Indeed, if the we had j +1 = 1, then we would have "j = j +1 =
1, and sin e "j +1 = GCD("j ; j +1 ), we would have "j+1 = 1, a ontradi tion,
sin e 62 Gj +1.
2
Lemma 2 Let 2 Gk 1 n Gk . If l k, then Gl Gk 1 n Gk (see gure
below).
' $
'
Gl $
1

Gl
Gk Gk
& %
& %
Proof: Indeed, from the hypothesis, we have that "k 1 = 1, but "k 6= 1.
Let be any element of Gl . Sin e "l divides "k 1 , it follows that ()"k 1 = 1,
and therefore, 2 Gk 1 . We now want to prove that 62 Gk . Suppose by
absurdity that 2 Gk . Sin e "l divides "k , we have that
1 = ()"k = "k "k = "k ;
2
For every j = 2; : : : ; , we dene
j 1
X
Pj (T ) = bi T i :
i=1
For ommodity, we dene +1 = 1. So,

1
X
P +1 = bi T i = y:
i=1
1 1
Consider now, for j = 1; : : : ; , Pj (X n ) 2 K ((X n )). We want to study
the following tower of extensions:
1
K ((X n ))
1
K ((X ))(Pj (X n ))
K ((X ))
Lemma 3 Let ; 2 G0 = Un and j 2 f2; : : : ; g. We have that
Pj (T ) = Pj (T ) () 1 2 Gj 1:
Proof: Suppose that
j 1
X j 1
X
bi i T i = bi i T i:
i=1 i=1
Hen e, i = i for i = n; 1 ; : : : ; j 1 and therefore, ( 1 )i = 1, for

i = GCD(n; 1 ; : : : ; j 1 ) = "j 1 . This implies that 1 2 Gj 1.
Conversely, suppose that "j 1 = "j 1 . From Se tion 3.4 we know that
"j 1 divides all the exponents i su h that j 1 i < j , for whi h bi 6= 0
and sin e "j 1 divides "` for all ` j 1, it follows that "j 1 divides all the
exponents i with 1 i < j for whi h bi 6= 0. Therefore,
bi i = bi i ; 8i = 1 ; 1 + 1; : : : ; j 1;
proving thus that Pj (T ) = Pj (T ).
2
The above result gives immediately the following orollary.
1 1
Corollary The Galois group of the extension K ((X n ))=K ((X ))(Pj (X n ))
is Gj 1.
1
Sin e the Galois group of the extension K ((X n ))=K ((X )) is G0 = Un ,
hen e abelian, it follows1 readily from the above orollary that the Galois
group of K ((X ))(Pj (X n ))=K ((X )) is G0 =Gj 1.
Denoting by [ ℄ the residual lass of in G0 = Un , modulo the subgroup
Gj 1, we dene
Pj ([ ℄T ) := Pj (T );
whi h1 makes sense by Lemma 3. It then follows1 that the onjugates of
Pj (X n ) in K ((X )) over K ((X )), are the Pj ([ ℄X n ), where [ ℄ 2 G0 =Gj 1 .
Therefore,
Y 1
fj (X; Y ) = Y Pj ([ ℄X n ) 2 K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄:
[ ℄2G0 =Gj 1
The polynomial fj (X; Y ) is of degree n="j 1 = 1 2 j 1 in Y (see

1
Problem 3.4.1) and it is the minimal polynomial of Pj (X n ) over K ((X )).
Consequently, we have that
fj = fj (x; y) 2 Of :
We dene 8
< 0 = n; if j = 0
>
vj = > 1 ; if j = 1
: v(fj ); if j = 2; : : : ; :
Therefore, the vj 's are elements in S (f ). The following theorem, due to
Zariski [Z2℄ will give us important information about these integers, relating
them to the hara teristi exponents 0 ; : : : ; of (f ).
To state the Theorem we will need the following notation. Dene for
k = 0; : : : ; n,
Mk = K [[X ℄℄ + K [[X ℄℄y + K [[X ℄℄y2 + + K [[X ℄℄yk Of ;
where n = mult(f ) and y is the residual lass of Y in Of . From the Division
Theorem it follows easily that Mn 1 = Of .
Theorem 1 i) For j = 2; : : : ; , we have that
jX1
"k 1 "k
vj = k + j (6.1)
k=1 "j 1
Pj
ii) If h 2 Mk with k < 1 j , then v(h) 2 i=0 vi IN. In parti ular,
S (f ) = hv0 ; : : : ; v i:
iii) The GCD of "j 1 and vj is "j , for j = 1; : : : ; . Moreover, vj is the

smallest non-zero element of S (f ) whi h is not divisible by "j 1 .
iv) The genus of S (f ) is and the integers v0 ; : : : ; v are a minimal system
of generators.
Proof: (i) From Lemma 2 it follows that if j > k, then ea h set Gk 1 n Gk

" "
is partitioned into the disjoint union of k 1 k osets of Gj 1. Moreover,
"j 1
using the denitions and Lemma 3, we have that
v(y Pj ([ ℄T )) = k ; 8 2 Gk 1 n Gk :
jX1
"k 1 "k
v(fj ) = k + j :
k=1 "j 1
(ii) We will prove this result by indu tion over j .
Case j = 1: let h = a0 (x) + ya1 (x) + + yk ak (x), with k < 1 . For every
i = 0; : : : ; 1 1, we have that
v(yi ai (x)) i1 mod n:
If i and l are two distin t non-negative integers less than 1 , we have
that
(i l)1 6 0 mod n;
be ause otherwise,
n
(i l) 1 = = 1 ;
"1 "1

whi h, sin e 1 and 1 = "n1 are relatively prime, would imply that 1 divides
"1
i l. This is a ontradi tion be ause 0 < ji lj < 1 .
Therefore,
v(yi ai (x)) 6= v(yl al (x)); if i; l < 1 with i 6= l:
It then follows that v(h) = v(yi ai (x)) for some i = 0; : : : ; k. This shows
that
v(h) 2 nIN + 1 IN = v0 IN + v1 IN:
Suppose now that the result is true for j 1. Let h 2 Mk Of , and
suppose that k < 1 j . Suppose that h = h(X; Y ), where h(X; Y ) is a
polynomial in K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄ of degree k. Expanding h(X; Y ) with respe t to
the powers of fj (X; Y ), we may write
h(X; Y ) = A0 (X; Y ) + A1 (X; Y )fj (X; Y ) + + As (X; Y )fj (X; Y )s ;
where s < j and A0 (X; Y ); : : : ; As (X; Y ) 2 K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄ are of degrees less
than degY fj (X; Y ) = 1 j 1 .
Therefore,
h = A0 (x; y) + A1 (x; y)fj + As (x; y)(fj )s ;
where Ai (x; y) 2 Mk0 , with k0 < 1 j 1, for i = 0; : : : ; s. From the
indu tive hypothesis this implies, for i = 0; : : : ; s, that
jX1
v(Ai (x; y)) 2 v IN: (6.2)
=0
In parti ular, from (6.2), it follows that
v(Ai (x; y)) 0 mod "j 1 :
From this and again from (6.2), it follows that
v(Ai (x; y)fji ) ivj ij ; mod "j 1 :
If i; l < j and i =6 l, we have that (i l)j 6 mod "j 1; be ause
otherwise, we get
"
(i l) j = j 1 = j ;
"j "j
"
whi h implies that j divides i l, be ause j and j = j 1 are relatively
"j "j
prime. This is a ontradi tion be ause 0 < ji lj < j .
This shows that the v(Ai (x; y)fji ) are distin t for i = 0; : : : ; s.
Therefore, using (6.2), we see that there exists i, with i = 0; : : : ; s, su h
that
j
X
v(h) = v(Ai (x; y)fji ) = v(Ai (x; y)) + ivj 2 v IN;
=0
whi h on ludes the proof of (ii).

(iii) Observe that from (6.1) we learly have that GCD(vj ; "j 1 ) = "j . It
also follows easily from (6.1) that v0 < v1 < < v .
Sin e, from (ii), v0 < v1 < < v , generate S (f ), and that "i 1 divides
v0 ; : : : ; vi 1 , we have that vi is the least non-zero element of S (f ) whi h is
not divisible by "i 1 .
(iv) It follows from (ii) and (iii) above that v0 ; v1 ; : : : ; v , is the minimal
system of generators of S (f ), be ause v0 = n = min(S (f ) n f0g), v1 = 1 =
min(S (f ) n nIN), and for all i = 2; : : : ; ,
i 1 !
X
vi = min S (f ) n v IN :
=0
In parti ular this shows that is equal to the genus g of S (f ).
2
From this we see that for all i = 0; : : : ; g one has
ei = "i and i = ni ;
where the ei 's and the ni 's are the integers we asso iated in Se tion 1 to any
sequen e of integers v0 ; : : : ; vg . In parti ular, sin e i > 1 for i = 1; : : : ; g
(see Problem 3.4.2), it follows that ni > 1, for i = 1; : : : ; g.
By the above observation, and using the relations in Problem 1.1, formula
(6.1) may be written as follows:
vj = (n1 1)n2 nj 11 + (n2 1)n3 nj 12 + + (6.3)
(nj 1 1)j 1 + j :
From this formula we get easily the following formula:
vi = ni 1 vi 1 i 1 + i ; i = 2; : : : ; g: (6.4)
Be ause the i 's are in reasing, it follows immediately from (6.4) that
vi+1 > ni vi ; i = 0; : : : ; g 1: (6.5)
A semigroup S with a minimal system of generators v0 ; v1 ; : : : ; vg satis-
fying ondition (6.5) will be alled a strongly in reasing semigroup.
So, we have shown that the semigroup of values of a plane bran h is a
strongly in reasing semigroup.
Theorem 2 Let f be an irredu ible power series in K [[X; Y ℄℄ with a given

Puiseux parametrization. Then S (f ) and the hara teristi integers of (f )
determine ea h other.
Proof: Indeed, given the hara teristi integers (0 ; 1 ; : : : ; g ) of (f ), we
may determine by the formulas (6.4) the integers v0 ; : : : ; vg and therefore
the semigroup S (f ) that they generate.
Conversely, given S (f ), then its minimal system of generators v0 ; : : : ; vg
is well determined so also are the integers n = v0 , and the integers ni , dened
indu tively by
e
ni = i 1 ; ei = GCD(ei 1 ; vi ); e0 = n:
ei
Now, the i 's may be determined re ursively by the formulas (6.4).
2
Next we show that the ondition on v0 ; : : : ; vg to be strongly in reasing,
together with the ondition ni > 1, for all i = 1; : : : ; g are suÆ ient to
guarantee that there exists a urve (f ) su h that S (f ) has v0 ; : : : ; vg as its
minimal system of generators.
Theorem 3 Let S be a given semigroup with a ondu tor and with minimal
system of generators v0 ; : : : ; vg su h that ni > 1 and vi > ni 1 vi 1 for all
i = 1; : : : ; g. Then there exists a plane algebroid irredu ible urve (f ) su h
that S (f ) = S .
Proof: Put n = 0 = v0 , and 1 = v0 . By the equations (6.4) we get
an in reasing sequen e of integers 0 ; 1 ; 2 ; : : : ; g , be ause of the ondi-
tions vi > ni 1 vi 1 . The onditions ni > 1, i = 1; : : : ; g, imply that
GCD(0 ; : : : ; i 1 ) 6= GCD(0 ; : : : ; i ).
Now, let
'(T ) = T 1 + T 2 + + T g ;
and take n
Y 1
f (X; Y ) = Y '( i X n ) ;
i=1
where is an n-th primitive root of 1.
It is easy to see that f (X; Y ) 2 K [[X ℄℄[Y ℄ determines an irredu ible alge-
broid plane urve (f ) with hara teristi exponents 0 ; : : : ; g , and therefore
with semigroup S .
2
Problems
2.1) Determine the minimal system of generators of the semigroups of the
bran hes given in Problem 3.4.3.
2.2) Determine S (f ) in the following ases:
a) f = Y 5 X 8 .
b) f = Y n X n+1 .
) f = Y 7 X 9 .
2.3) Show that one has, for i = 1; : : : ; g, the formulas:
i = vi (ni 1 1)vi 1 (n2 1)v2 (n1 1)v1 :
[Hint: Use formulas (6.4)℄
2.4) Let (f ) be an irredu ible algebroid plane urve and let v0 ; : : : ; vg be
the minimal set of generators of S (f ). Suppose that h 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ is su h
that I(f; h) = vi , for some i = 0; : : : ; g, show that h is an irredu ible power
series.
6.3 Semigroups and Cartesian Equations

Up to now we have shown how to determine the semigroup S (f ) through a
Newton-Puiseux parametrization of (f ). In this se tion we will show how
to determine from f itself the hara teristi integers of the urve (f ), and
therefore, by formulas (6.4) we will be able to re over the generators of S (f ).
Let (f ) be an irredu ible algebroid plane urve regular in Y and para-
metrized by
X
X = T n; Y = '(T ) = bi T i ; bm 6= 0
im
Lemma 4 If 2 Gk n Gk+1, then mult('(T ) '(T )) = k+1.
Proof: Sin e
+1 1
kX X
'(T ) = bi T i + bi T i ;
i=m ik+1
and when 2 Gk n Gk+1 we have
+1 1
kX +1 1
kX
bi (T )i = bi T i ;
i=m i=m
6.3. SEMIGROUPS AND CARTESIAN EQUATIONS 115
then
'(T ) '(T ) = (1 k+1)bk+1 T k+1 + :
Sin e k+1 6= 1, the result follows immediately.
2
j f
We will use the notation: fY(j ) := .
Y j
Theorem 4 Let f 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ be irredu ible of multipli ity n and regular
in Y . Let j; k be integers su h that 1 j n and 0 k g 1. If
ek+1 j ek , then
I(f; fY(j ) ) = (n e1 )1 + + (ek 1 ek )k + (ek j )k+1 :
Proof: If u is a unit in K [[X; Y ℄℄ then
I(uf; (uf )Y ) = I(uf; uY f + ufY ) = I(uf; ufY ) = I(f; fY ):
So, we may assume that f is a Weierstrass polynomial. If (T n ; '(T )) is a
Puiseux parametrization of (f ), then we have
Y 1
f (X; Y ) = (Y '(X n )):
2G0
Dierentiating the above expression, we get
2 3
X Y 1
f (j ) (X; Y ) = j !
Y
4 (Y '(X n ))5 :
G0 2
#=n j
Then
0 2 31
( j) B X Y C
I(f; fY ) = mult B

4 ('(T ) '(T ))5C
A:
G0 2
#=n j
Q
We know by Lemma 4 that the multipli ity of 2 ('(T ) '(T )) de-
pends upon the set Gi n Gi+1 , where is lo ated, and it will be smaller as i
is smaller. Sin e ek+1 j ek , it follows that n ek n j n ek+1 ,
and therefore smallest multipli ities in the above expression will o ur when
= (G0 n Gk ) [ J , where J Gk n Gk+1 (see gure below).
' $

+1 J
0 G
Æ Gk Gk
Æ Æ
& %
Therefore, we must evaluate the multipli ity of the following sum:
2 3
X Y
4 ('(T ) '(T ))5 =
J Gk nGk+1 2(G0 nGk )[J
#J =ek j
2 3
Y X Y
('(T ) '(T )): 4 ('(T ) '(T ))5 :
2(G0 nGk ) J Gk nGk+1 2J
#J =ek j
From Lemma 4, the multipli ity of the rst fa tor is
(n e1 )1 + (e1 e2 )2 + + (ek 1 ek )k :
On the other hand, ea h summand in the se ond fa tor has multipli ity
(ek j )k+1 ;
and leading oeÆ ient Y
bekk+1j (1 k+1 ):
2J
To nish the proof, we must show that
0 1
X Y
(1 k+1 )A ; (6.6)
J Gk nGk+1 2J
#J =ek j
is non-zero.
But, sin e 1 k+1 = 0, for 2 Gk+1, be ause ek+1 divides k+1, it
follows that (6.6) is equal to
0 1
X Y
(1 k+1 )A : (6.7)
J Gk 2J
#J =ek j
6.3. SEMIGROUPS AND CARTESIAN EQUATIONS 117
Observe that when varies in Gk the expression k+1 assumes nk+1 =

ek
distin t values, ea h one repeated ek+1 times. With this, we may
ek+1
on lude that, modulo the sign, the expression (6.7) is the oeÆ ient of Z j
of the polynomial
g(Z ) = [(1 Z )nk+1 1℄ek+1 ;
whi h is also, modulo the sign, equal to
! !
X nk+1 nk+1
i1
i 6= 0:
i1 ++iek+1 =j ek+1
2
Corollary 1 If ek+1 < j ek , then
k+1 = I(f; fY(j 1)) I(f; fY(j )): (6.8)
Remark that if f is regular in X , then all results in this se tion are valid
inter hanging the roles of X and Y .
The above orollary allows to ompute the hara teristi integers of an
irredu ible algebroid plane urve, given in artesian form. For this, if f is
regular in Y then it is suÆ ient to ompute the dieren es (6.8).
More pre isely, put in (6.8) j = 2 > eg = 1. Then we have
I(f; fY(1) ) I(f; fY(2) ) = g :
Next, ompute the dieren e (6.8) for j = 3; : : :, until the last value of
j for whi h it remains un hanged. This value of j is pre isely eg 1 . Next,
ompute the dieren e (6.8) for j = eg 1 + 1, getting g 1 . Next, ompute
the dieren e (6.8) for j = eg 1 + 2; : : :, until the last value of j for whi h
this dieren e remains un hanged. This new value of j is eg 2 . Pro eeding
in this way we get all the hara teristi integers of (f ).
If instead f is not regular in Y then it is ne essarily regular in X . Hen e
we may use the same method as above inter hanging the roles of X and Y .
The results of this se tion were essentially taken from [DS℄.
Problems
3.1) Determine the hara teristi integers of the urve (f ), where
f = Y 4 2X 3 Y 2 4X 5 Y + X 6 X 7 :
[Hint: Use the omputations you did in Problem 4.3.2 and then apply the
above pro edure.℄
6.4 Apery Sequen e of the Semigroup of Values

In his 1947 note [Ap℄, M. Apery introdu ed the important notion of Apery
sequen e asso iated to a semigroup of the naturals. As we will see, several
notions and invariants may be expressed in terms of these sequen es.
Let S be a semigroup with ondu tor and let p 2 S n f0g. We dene
the Apery sequen e a0 ; : : : ; ap 1 of S , with respe t to p, indu tively by the
onditions: a0 = 0 and
0 1
j[1
aj = min S n (ai + pIN)A ; 1 j p 1;
i=0
where
ai + pIN = fai + p j 2 INg:
If a 2 IN, we will denote by [a℄ the residual lass of a, modulo p, in IN.
It is easy to verify from the above denition that the following properties
hold:
(a) a0 = 0 < a1 < < ap 1 .
(b) ai 6 aj , mod p, 0 i < j p 1.
( ) ai = min ([ai ℄ \ S ).
Sp 1
(d) S = j =0 (aj + pIN).
(e) = ap 1 (p 1).
The property (d) implies that fp; a1 ; : : : ; ap 1 g generates S over IN. Prop-
erty (e) follows on one hand, from the fa t that 1 = ap 1 p doesn't
belong to S , be ause of ( ). On the other hand, for all r 0, we have that
+ r = ap 1 (p 1) + r 2 S , be ause otherwise we would have for some
i = 0; : : : ; p 1 that + r = ai + p, with < 0. This would imply that
ap 1 ai = p + p 1 < 0, a ontradi tion.
A ording to ( ) and (d) above, the elements of S are of the form ai + p
for some i = 0; : : : ; p 1 and 0; while the gaps of S are of the form
ai + p for some i = 0; : : : ; p 1 and < 0.
When we take p = n = min (S n f0g), then the Apery sequen e with
respe t to n will be alled simply the Apery sequen e of S and the set
A = fa0 ; : : : ; an 1g

6.4. APERY SEQUENCE OF THE SEMIGROUP OF VALUES 119
will be alled the Apery set of S .

Let f 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ be an irredu ible power series, regular of order n in
Y . Re all from Proposition 4.1 that
Of = K [[X ℄℄ K [[X ℄℄y K [[X ℄℄yn 1 :
Re all also that in Chapter 3 we dened, for k = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1,
Mk = K [[X ℄℄ K [[X ℄℄y K [[[X ℄℄yk :
So,
K [[X ℄℄ = M0 M1 M2 Mn 1 = Of :
The next result, on erning the spa es Mk , will play an important role
in what follows.
Proposition 3 (Apery) Let f 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ be irredu ible, regular of order
n in Y and su h that n doesn't divide m = I(f; Y ). Put M 1 = f0g amd
y0 = 1. Then for every k = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1, there exists an element yk 2
yk + Mk 1 su h that v(yk ) 62 v(Mk 1 ).
Proof: Let (T n ; '(T )) be a Puiseux parametrization of (f ), where '(T ) =
am T m + , with m not a multiple of n. Observe that y0 2 y0 + M 1 and
v(y0 ) = 0 62 v(M 1 ) = f1g:
Sin e m is not a multiple of n, dening y1 = y, we have that
v(y1 ) = v(y) = m 62 v(M0 ) = nIN:
Noti e that
M1 = K [[X ℄℄ + K [[X ℄℄y1 :
Consider the element '0 (X )+ '1 (X )y1 2 M1 su h that y2 = y2 '0 (X )
'1 (X )y1 , when viewed as a series in T , doesn't ontain any term in T of order
multiple of n or of order v(y1 ) plus a multiple of n. Noti e that v(y2 ) 6= 1
be ause otherwise y2 2 M1 , and onsequently, y2 2 M1 , whi h is absurd.
We then have that y2 2 y2 + M1 and v(y2 ) 62 v(M1 ). Noti e that
M2 = K [[X ℄℄ + K [[X ℄℄y1 + K [[X ℄℄y2 :
Consider the element '0 (X ) + '1 (X )y1 + '2 (X )y2 2 M2 su h that y3 =
y3 '0 (X ) '1 (X )y1 '2 (X )y2 , when viewed as a series in T , doesn't
ontain any term in T either of order multiple of n or of order v(y1 ) plus a

multiple of n, or of order v(y2 ) plus a multiple of n. Noti e that v(y3 ) 6= 1
be ause otherwise, y3 2 M2 and onsequently, y3 2 M2 , whi h is absurd.
We then have that y3 2 y3 + M2 and v(y3 ) 62 v(M2 ). Noti e that
M3 = K [[X ℄℄ + K [[X ℄℄y1 + K [[X ℄℄y2 + K [[X ℄℄y3 :
We ontinue this way until we prove the result.
2
Remark that during the proof of the above proposition we have shown
that
Of = K [[X ℄℄ + K [[X ℄℄y1 + + K [[X ℄℄yn 1 : (6.9)
We then have that the yk , k = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1, found in the above propo-
sition generate Of as a K [[X ℄℄-module.
Lemma 5 (Azevedo) Suppose that, for k = 0; : : : ; n 1, we have elements
yk 2 yk + Mk 1 with v(yk ) 62 v(Mk 1 ), where y0 = 1 and M 1 = f0g. Then
for all i; j with 0 i; j n 1, and i + j n 1, we have that
v(yi ) + v(yj ) v(yi+j ):
Proof: Write yi = a + yi and yj = b + yj with a 2 Mi 1 and b 2 Mj 1 .
Then
yi yj = ab + ayj + byi + yi yj = + yi+j ;
where = ab + ayj + byi 2 Mi+j 1 . Sin e yi+j = yi+j d, for some
d 2 Mi+j 1 , it follows that yi yj = d + yi+j . Dene e = d 2 Mi+j 1 . If
v(yi+j ) < v(yi yj ), then v(yi+j ) = v(e) 2 v(Mi+j 1 ), whi h is a ontradi tion
be ause v(yi+j ) 62 v(Mi+j 1 ).
2
Remark 2 We have that v(yi ) < v(yj ), whenever 0 i < j n 1.
Indeed, sin e for i 1, v(yi ) 62 v(Mi 1 ), we have that v(yi ) 6= 0, hen e
it follows that v(yj ) v(yi ) + v(yj i) > v(yi ).
Proposition 4 Let f 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ be irredu ible and regular in Y of order n.
Put y0 = 1 and let y1 ; : : : ; yn 1 be elements of Of su h that yk 2 yk + Mk 1,
and v(yk ) 62 v(Mk 1 ). Denoting by [r℄ the residual lass of the integer r,
modulo n, then for all k = 0; : : : ; n 1, we have that

6.4. APERY SEQUENCE OF THE SEMIGROUP OF VALUES 121
(i) v(Mk ) = [ki=0 fv(yi )g + nIN,

(ii) v(yi ) 6 v(yj ) mod n, for all i; j = 0; : : : ; n 1, with i 6= j .
(iii) v(yk ) = min ([v(yk )℄ \ S (f )), for all k = 0; : : : ; n 1.
Proof: If n = 1, we have nothing to prove sin e in this ase, S (f ) = IN,
and assertions (i), (ii) e (iii) are trivially satised. We then may assume that
n > 1.
(i) We are going to prove this part by indu tion on k. For k = 0, the
assertion is easily proved sin e every element of K [[X ℄℄ is the produ t of a
power of x by a unit in this ring, hen e its value will be a positive multiple
of n. Suppose then that for some k su h that 1 k n 1, we have
v(Mk 1 ) = fv(yi ) + n; 0 i k 1; 0g:
We will prove the assertion for k. Sin e Mk = Mk 1 + K [[X ℄℄yk , we may
write any element of Mk in the form = + a(X )yk , with 2 Mk 1 and
a(X ) 2 K [[X ℄℄. We initially prove that v() 6= v(a(X )yk ). Indeed, if the
ontrary was true, using the indu tive hypothesis, we would have, for some
i k 1, a relation of the following type
v(yi ) + n = n + v(yk );
and therefore, in view of Remark 2, v(yk ) = v(yi ) + ( )n, with > .
Hen e, again from the indu tive hypothesis, v(yk ) 2 v(Mk 1 ), whi h is a
ontradi tion. Hen e, from the indu tive hypothesis, v() 6= v(a(X )yk ). It
follows from this that either, v( ) = v() 2 v(Mk 1 ), or v( ) = v(a(X )yk ) =
v(yk ) + n, whi h proves the result.
(ii) Suppose by absurdity that v(yi ) v(yj ) mod n; for some pair of integers
(i; j ) with i 6= j . Suppose that v(yj ) = v(yi ) + n, and without loss of
generality that j > i. It then follows from Remark 2 that > 0, hen e from
(i), v(yj ) 2 v(Mi ), whi h is a ontradi tion.
(iii) It follows from (ii) that ea h residual lass of integers modulo n ontains
exa tly one of the integers v(yi ), i = 0; : : : ; n 1. On the other hand, the
only elements in the residual lass of v(yi ) are from (i) the integers of the
form v(yi ) + n, with 0. Therefore,
v(yk ) = min ([v(yk )℄ \ S (f )) ; 8k; k = 0; : : : ; n 1:
2
Conditions (ii) and (iii) in the above proposition say that ai = v(yi ),
i = 0; : : : ; n 1, is the Apery sequen e of S (f ).
Corollary 1 Let i and j be two distin t integers, i; j = 0; : : : ; n 1, and
let i (X ); j (X ) 2 K [[X ℄℄ n f0g. Then v(i (x)yi ) 6 v(j (x)yj ) mod n.
Proof: We have already observed before that v (i (X )) = i n for some
natural number i . If we had v(i (X )yi ) = v(j (X )yj ), then assuming
j > i, we would have 0 < v(yj ) v(yi ) = (i j )n. It would follow that
i > j , hen e v(yj ) 2 v(Mi ) v(Mj 1 ), a ontradi tion.
2
Corollary 2 We have
Of = K [[X ℄℄ K [[X ℄℄y1 K [[X ℄℄yn 1 :

Proof: In view of (6.9), it is suÆ ient to prove that y0 ; : : : ; yn 1 are in-
dependent over K [[X ℄℄. In fa t, if we had a non-trivial relation 0 (X ) +
1 (X )y1 + + n 1 (X )yn 1 = 0, from Corollary 1 above, it would exist
i 2 f0; : : : ; n 1g su h that i 6= 0 and
1 = v(0) = v(0 (X ) + 1 (X )y1 + + n 1(X )yn 1 ) = v(i (X )yi );
2
Corollary 3 Let 1 = z0 ; z1 ; : : : ; zn 1 2 Of be su h that
(i) zk 2 yk + Mk 1 , 8k = 0; : : : ; n 1, and
(ii) v(z0 ); v(z1 ); : : : ; v(zn 1 ) are pairwise non- ongruent modulo n.
Then v(zk ) = v(yk ), for all k = 0; : : : ; n 1.
Proof: From Proposition 4(iii), it is suÆ ient to show that v(zk ) 62 v(Mk 1 )
for all k = 1; : : : ; n 1, sin e (i) and this ondition determine uniquely the
v(yk ). Sin e from Proposition 4 (i), v(Mk 1 ) interse ts only k residual lasses
modulo n, and sin e v(zi ) 2 v(Mk 1 ), for all i = 0; : : : ; k 1, it follows that
v(zk ) 62 v(Mk 1 ), whi h proves the assertion.
2
6.5. SEMIGROUPS AND BLOWING-UPS 123
Sin e the Apery set of a semigroup is a set of generators, it is lear that

the Apery set and the minimal set of generators determine ea h other. In the
next hapter we will see how, in the ase of semigroups of values of bran hes,
we an obtain the Apery sequen e from the minimal set of generators of the
semigroup and how to re ognize whi h elements of the Apery sequen e form
the minimal system of generators of the semigroup.
Problems
4.1) Determine the Apery sequen es for the following semigroups:

a) h5; 8i.
b) hn; n + 1i.
) h6; 9; 19i.
6.5 Semigroups and Blowing-Ups

In this se tion we will relate the semigroup of a singularity of a plane bran h
with the multipli ity sequen e obtained from the desingularization pro ess
that we dis ussed in Chapter 5.
Let f 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ be an irredu ible power series of multipli ity n and
regular in Y . Then from Proposition 5.4 it follows that if f (1) = (f ), then
S (f ) S (f (1) ).
Proposition 5 Let f 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ be an irredu ible power series regular in
Y and with tangent one (Y n ). Let f (1) = (f ) and let a0 < a1 < <
an 1 and a00 < a01 < < a0n 1 be respe tively the Apery sequen es of S (f )
and S (f (1) ), with respe t to the integer n. Then
aj = a0j + jn; 8j = 0; : : : ; n 1:
Proof: In the above onditions, from Proposition 5.2, we have that f (1) =
(f ) is regular of order n in Y1 and is su h that vf (1) (x) = n.
Sin e a00 ; a01 ; : : : ; a0n 1 form a omplete residue system modulo n, the set
fa00 ; a01 + n; : : : ; a0n 1 + (n 1)ng is also a omplete residue system modulo n.
From Corollary 3 of Proposition 2, it will be suÆ ient to show that for every
k = 1; : : : ; n 1, there exists yk 2 Mk 1 + yk , su h that v(yk ) = a0k + kn.
For every k = 0; : : : ; n 1, dene Mk0 1 in an analogous way as we
did for Mk with f (1) in the pla e of f . Let yk0 2 ( Xy )k + Mk0 1 , be su h
that v(yk0 ) = a0k , whose existen e in Of (1) is se ured by Propositions 3 and
4 and put y00 = 1. Multiplying yk0 by X k , for k = 0; : : : ; n 1, we get

yk = X k yk0 2 Mk 1 + yk . Hen e v(yk ) = v(yk0 ) + v(X k ) = a0k + kn, nishing
the proof.
2
When the power series is regular in X , we may apply a similar argument
using instead of , showing that the result may applied to the sequen e of
semigroups o urring in the anoni al resolution of (f ).
Corollary 1 Let and (1) be respe tively the ondu tors of S (f ) and
S (f (1) ). Then = (1) + n(n 1).
Proof: We have only to use the above relations among the Apery se-
quen es of S (f ) and S (f (1) ) with respe t to n and the relations = an 1
(n 1) and (1) = a0n 1 (n 1).
2
Noti e that the equality (1) = n(n 1), we have just proved, gives
us another proof that after nitely many blowing-ups we get at the end a
non-singular algebroid urve.
Corollary 2 S (f (1) ) and mult(f ) determine S (f ) and onversely.
Corollary 3 Two plane bran hes are equisingular if, and only if, they
are equiresoluble.
Proof: Consider the anoni al resolution of a bran h (f ):
f; f (1) ; f (2) ; : : : f (N ) :
Sin e f (N ) is non-singular, its asso iated semigroup is IN. Sin e the Apery
sequen e of IN is given by a(iN ) = i, then from Proposition 5 we have that
the Apery sequen e of S (f (N 1) ) is determined if we know the multipli ity
of f (N 1) and vi e-versa. Using an indu tive reasoning, we see that the
multipli ity sequen e n(i) of the f (i) determines and is determined by the
semigroup S (f ).
2
Corollary 1, used repeatedly gives us the following formula for the on-
du tor: r
X
= n(i) (n(i) 1); (6.10)
i=0
6.5. SEMIGROUPS AND BLOWING-UPS 125
where n(0) = mult(f ).

Example 5 In the ase of the urve h = Y 4 X 7 , we saw in Chapter 5
that the multipli ity sequen e in the anoni al resolution is (4; 3; 1), whi h
gives = 4(4 1) + 3(3 1) = 18, in a ordan e with the result in Example
3.
Problems
5.1) Determine the sequen e of semigroups and their respe tive ondu -
tors in the anoni al resolution of the urves in Problem 2.1, Chapter 5.
Chapter 7
SEMIGROUPS OF THE
NATURALS
In this hapter we will study semigroups of natural numbers from a purely
arithmeti al point of view. This will show that most of the properties of
semigroups of values of plane bran hes are onsequen e of the very basi
inequality (6.5) we proved in Se tion 6.2 involving their minimal system of
generators.
7.1 Semigroups with Condu tors

Given a semigroup G = hx0 ; : : : ; xr i in IN, then any element in G may be
represented in several ways in the form
0 x0 + + r xr ; 0 ; : : : ; r 2 IN:
For example, if
G = hx0 ; x1 i = h3; 5i;
then we have
45 = 15x0 = 9x1 = 5x0 + 6x1 :
However, when G = hx0 ; : : : ; xr i is a semigroup with a ondu tor, we
will show in Proposition 1 below that the elements of G may be represented
uniquely as a ombination of spe ial type of the elements x0 ; : : : ; xr .
Let ni and ei , i = 0; : : : ; g, be the integers asso iated to x0 ; : : : ; xg as
dened in Se tion 6.1.
The following lemma will be fundamental.
127
128 CHAPTER 7. SEMIGROUPS OF THE NATURALS
Lemma 1 Let x0 ; x1 ; : : : ; xr 2 IN with GCD(x0 ; x1 ; : : : ; xr ) = 1 and let ei

and ni , i = 0; : : : ; r, be their asso iated integers. For every m 2 IN there is
a unique solution for the ongruen e
r
X
m si xi mod x0 ; with 0 si < ni; i = 1; : : : ; r:
i=1
Proof: By indu tion on r. Case r = 1: Sin e e1 = GCD(x0 ; x1 ) = 1, it

e x
follows that n1 = 0 = 0 = x0 ; and x0 + x1 = 1 for some integers and
e1 1
. Then
m = mx0 + mx1 :
Dividing m by x0 , we get q and s1 with 0 s1 < x0 = n1 , su h that
m = qx0 + s1 :
Putting together the above two displayed equalities, we get
m s1 x1 mod x0 ; with 0 s1 < n1 :
Let us now suppose the result true for r 1. Let x0 ; : : : ; xr+1 be positive
integers satisfying the hypothesis of the Lemma. Consider the sequen e
x x x
x00 = 0 ; x01 = 1 ; : : : ; x0r = r ; whi h satises the indu tive assumption;
er er er
that is, for every integer m0 there exist si and su h that
X r
m0 = si x0i + x00 ; with 0 si < n0i ; i = 1; : : : ; r;
i=1
where
e0i 1 GCD(x00 ; : : : ; x0i 1 ) GCD(x0 ; : : : ; xi 1 ) ei 1
n0i = = = = = ni :
e0i GCD(x00 ; : : : ; x0i ) GCD(x0 ; : : : ; xi ) ei
By hypothesis, there exist 0 ; : : : ; r+1 su h that
0 x0 + 1 x1 + + r+1 xr+1 = 1;
and therefore, for every integer m, we have
m = 00 x0 + 01 x1 + + 0r xr + 0r+1 xr+1 :
7.1. SEMIGROUPS WITH CONDUCTORS 129
Dividing 0r+1 by er , we get integers q and sr+1 , with 0 sr+1 < er =

nr+1 , su h that 0r+1 = qer + sr+1 . Therefore,
m = 0 x0 + 0 x1 + + 0 xr + (qer + sr+1)xr+1 :
0 1 r
Sin e er divides x0 ; : : : ; xr , there exists an integer m0 su h that
m = m0 er + sr+1xr+1 :
Now, the result follows by writing m0 in terms of the the x0i , as above,
and using the fa t that xi = x0i er , i = 1; : : : ; r.
Uniqueness Sin e we have proved the existen e of the solution of the
ongruen es, the uniqueness will follow from the fa t that
( r )
X
# si xi ; 0 si < ni ; i = 1; : : : ; r = n1 n2 nr = x0 :
i=1
2
Proposition 1 Let x0 ; x1 ; : : : ; xr be natural relatively prime numbers.
i) Every natural number m has a unique representation as
r
X
m= si xi ; 0 si < ni ; i = 1; : : : ; r; s0 2 ZZ:
i=0
Pr
ii) If m > i=1 (ni 1)xi x0 , then in the above representation s0 0.
Pr Part (i) is a onsequen e of Lemma 1. To prove (ii), suppose that

Proof:
m > i=1 (ni 1)xi x0 . From (i) we have a unique representation
r
X
m= si xi ; 0 si < ni ; i = 1; : : : ; r; s0 2 ZZ:
i=0
So, from the hypothesis we get
r
X r
X r
X
si xi = m > (ni 1)xi x0 si xi x0 ;
i=0 i=1 i=1
whi h implies that s0 x0 > x0 , giving s0 0.
2
Corollary Let G be a semigroup in IN, with ondu tor , and let x0 ; : : : ; xr

be any set of generators of G. Then we have
r
X
(ni 1)xi x0 + 1:
i=1
Noti e that in the representation of Proposition 3, we have that if s0 0,

then m 2 G. The onverse is not always true; that is, we may have m 2 G
with s0 < 0, as one an see in the following example.
Example 1 Let
G = h8; 10; 11i = f0; 8; 10; 11; 16; 18; 19; 20; 21; 22; 24; 26; 27; : : : g:
We have that the ondu tor of G is = 26. Also, e0 = 8, e1 = 2, e2 = 1,
n1 = 4 and n2 = 2. The element 22 2 G, in the above representation, is
written as
22 = 3 x1 + 0 x2 x0 :
There is an important lass of semigroups in IN, where this onverse, we
mentioned above, is true. To des ribe this lass of semigroups, let us dene
the following notion.
Let x0 ; ; xr be a sequen e of relatively prime integers, and let the
ni 's be the asso iated integers. We say that this sequen e is ni e if, for all
i = 1; : : : ; r, we have
ni xi 2 hx0 ; : : : ; xi 1 i:
Proposition 2 Let x0 ; : : : ; xr be a ni e sequen e of integers. If G = hx0 ; : : : ; xr i,
then
i) every element m 2 G is uniquely representable in the form
r
X
m= si xi ; 0 si < ni; i = 1; : : : ; r; s0 2 IN;
i=0
ii) the ondu tor of G is given by

r
X
= (ni 1)xi x0 + 1:
i=1
7.1. SEMIGROUPS WITH CONDUCTORS 131
Proof: (i) Let m = 0 x0 + + r xr 2 G, with i 2 IN. Write r =

qr nr + sr with 0 sr < nr . Then we have
m = sr xr + qr nr xr + 0 x0 + + r 1 xr 1 ; 0 sr < nr :
Sin e the sequen e is ni e, we get that
qr nr xr + 0 x0 + + r 1 xr 1 2 hx0 ; : : : xr 1 i:
Now, repeat this pro edure to the oeÆ ient of xr 1 of the above element
written as a ombination of x0 ; : : : ; xr 1 with natural oeÆ ients, and so on.
(ii) From the orollary of Proposition 3, we know that
r
X
(ni 1)xi x0 + 1:
i=1
Pr
Now, sin e from (i) we have that i=1 (ni 1)xi x0 62 G, the result
follows.
2
In reality, it an be proved that assertions (i) and (ii) in Proposition 2
are equivalent to ea h other, and also equivalent to the fa t that x0 ; : : : ; xr
is a ni e sequen e (see for example [An℄).
A semigroup G in IN with ondu tor will be alled symmetri if,
8z 2 ZZ; z 2 G () 1 z 62 G:
Proposition 3 Let G be a semigroup in IN with ondu tor . The following
assertions are equivalent.
i) G is symmetri ,
ii) 2jG \ [0; )j = ,
iii) 2jIN n Gj = ,
iv) jIN n Gj = jG \ [0; )j.
Proof: Sin e (IN n G) [ (G \ [0; )) = [0; ), it follows that (ii),(iii) and (iv)
are equivalent.
Consider now the bije tion
' : [0; 1℄ ! [0; 1℄
z 7! 1 z
Sin e G is a semigroup and 1 62 G, we have that '(G \ [0; )) IN n G.

Now, G symmetri is equivalent to the fa t that '(G \ [0; 1℄) = IN n G.
This proves that (i) is equivalent to (iv).
2
So, if G is symmetri , is even and there as many gaps as non-gaps of
G in the interval [0; ).
Proposition 4 Every semigroup generated by a ni e sequen e is symmetri .
Proof: Let x0 ; : : : ; xr be a ni e sequen e. We knowPfrom Proposition 2(ii),

that the ondu tor of G = hx0 ; : : : ; xr i is equal to ri=1 (ni 1)xi x0 + 1.
Now from Proposition 1(i), we also know that any z 2 IN may be written
uniquely as
r
X
z= si xi ; 0 si < ni ; i = 1; : : : ; r; s0 2 ZZ;
i=0
and, from Proposition 2(i), z 2 G if and only if s0 0. Now, onsider
r
X
1 z= (ni 1 si )xi (s0 + 1)x0 :
i=1
Hen e, we have that s0 0 if and only if (s0 + 1) 1, whi h proves
that G is symmetri .
2
Problems
1.1) Let 1 < x0 < x1 be two relatively prime integers. Show that x0 ; x1 forms
a ni e sequen e. Con lude that the semigroup they generate is symmetri
and its ondu tor is = (v0 1)(v1 1).
7.2. STRONGLY INCREASING SEMIGROUPS 133
7.2 Strongly In reasing Semigroups

In this se tion we will explore some properties of strongly in reasing semi-
groups, whi h will be used intensively in what follows.
Let x0 ; x1 ; ; xr be a sequen e of natural relatively prime numbers and
let ei and ni, i = 0; : : : ; r, be their asso iated numbers. We say that the
sequen e is strongly in reasing if
xi > ni 1 xi 1 ; 8i = 1; : : : ; r:
It follows immediately from the above denition that a strongly in reas-
ing sequen e is an in reasing sequen e.
Lemma 2 Let x0 < x1 < < xr be a strongly in reasing sequen e of

natural numbers. Then
i
X
xi+1 > (nj 1)xj ; i = 0; : : : ; r 1:
j =0
Proof: By indu tion on i. For i = 0, this is obvious. Suppose the inequal-

ity true for xi , then
i 1
X i
X
xi+1 > ni xi = (ni 1)xi + xi > (ni 1)xi + (nj 1)xj = (nj 1)xj :
j =0 j =0
2
Proposition 5 Every strongly in reasing sequen e of natural numbers is
ni e. In parti ular, it generates a symmetri semigroup.
Proof: Let x0 < x1 < < xr be a strongly in reasing sequen e of

natural numbers. We will show that this sequen e is ni e, whi h in parti ular,
by Proposition 6, will imply that the semigroup generated by it is symmetri .
x x x
Consider the sequen e x00 = 0 ; x01 = 1 ; : : : ; x0i = i : Then it is easy
ei ei ei
to verify that
GCD(x00 ; : : : ; x0i 1 ) GCD(x0 ; : : : ; xi 1 )
n0i = = = ni :
GCD(x00 ; : : : ; x0i ) GCD(x0 ; : : : ; xi )
From Lemma 2, we have that

i 1
X
nixi xi > (nj 1)xj x0 ;
j =0
whi h implies that

i 1
X
n0i x0i > (n0j 1)x0j x00 ;
j =0
and therefore, from the orollary of Proposition 3, it follows that
n0i x0i 2 hx00 ; x01 ; : : : ; x0i 1 i;
whi h implies learly that
ni xi 2 hx0 ; x1 ; : : : ; xi 1 i:
2
Re all from Se tion 6.2 that a semigroup G is alled strongly in reasing
if its minimal system of generators is strongly in reasing.
Let x; y 2 INr . We will say that x is smaller than y in the reverse
lexi ographi al order, writing x y, if the last non-zero oordinate of y x
is positive. This establishes a total order relation in INr .
Let x0 ; : : : ; xr be a sequen e of positive relatively prime integers. Con-
sider the integers n0 ; : : : ; nr asso iated to x0 ; : : : ; xr and dene the set
E (x0 ; : : : ; xr ) = f(s1 ; : : : ; sr ) 2 INr ; 0 si < ni; i = 1; : : : ; rg INr :
We will always onsider E (x0 ; : : : ; xr ) equipped with the reverse lexi o-
graphi al order and IN with its usual order.
Lemma 3 If x0 ; : : : ; xr is a strongly in reasing sequen e, then the map
: E (x0 ; : : : ; xr ) ! Pr IN;
(s1 ; : : : ; sr ) 7 ! i=1 si xi
preserves orders.

7.3. APERY SEQUENCES 135
Proof: Clearly, it is enough to prove, for all j = 1; : : : ; r 1, and all si

with si < ni , i = 1; : : : ; j , that
j
X
sixi < xj +1:
i=1
The above inequality is proved as follows:
Pj
i=1 si xi (n1 1)x1 + + (nj 1)xj <
n1 x1 + (n2 1)x2 + + (nj 1)xj <
n2 x2 + (n3 1)x3 + + (nj 1)xj <
< nj xj < xj+1:
2
Problems
2.1) Give an example of a ni e sequen e whi h is not strongly in reasing.

2.2) Determine the ondu tors of the semigroups of the bran hes in Problem
3.4.3.
[Hint: Use the omputations you did in Problem 6.2.1.℄
7.3 Apery Sequen es

Re all from Se tion 6.4 the denitions of the Apery sequen e and the Apery
set of a semigroup S .
Proposition 6 Let S = hx0 ; : : : ; xr i, where x0 ; : : : ; xr is a ni e sequen e.
We have that
( r )
X
A= si xi ; 0 si < ni ; i = 1; : : : ; r ;
i=1
where n1 ; : : : ; nr are the integers asso iated to x0 ; : : : ; xr and A is the Apery
set of S .
Proof: We know from Proposition 2 that every m 2 S may be written in
a unique way as
r
X
sixi + s0 x0 ; 0 si < ni; i = 1; : : : ; r and s0 2 IN:
i=1
Pr
This implies that ea h sum i=1 si xi is minimal in its ongruen e lass
modulo n = x0 , so we have
( r )
X
si xi ; 0 si < ni; i = 1; : : : ; r A:
i=1
Now, sin e
( r )
X
# sixi ; 0 si < ni ; i = 1; : : : ; r = n1 nr = n;
i=1
the result follows.
2
Lemma 4 Let x0 ; : : : ; xr be a sequen e of positive integers su h that GCD (x0 ; : : : ; xr ) =
1. The map
: E (x0 ; : : : ; xr ) ! Pr IN
(s1 ; : : : ; sr ) 7 ! i=1 si n0 : : : ni 1
is an order preserving map that is a bije tion between E (x0 ; : : : ; xr ) and
f0; 1; : : : ; n 1g, where n = x0 = n1 : : : nr .
Proof: The inequalities
j
X
si n0 : : : ni 1 (n1 1)n0 + (n2 1)n0 n1 + + (nj 1)n0 : : : nj 1 =
i=1
n0 n1 : : : nj n0 < n0 n1 : : : nj ;
show that preserves orders and that its image is ontained in the set
f0; 1; : : : ; n 1g. Sin e is order preserving, it follows that it is inje tive
and be ause both sets E (x0 ; : : : ; xr ) and f0; 1; : : : ; n 1g have the same
ardinality n, it follows that is a bije tion onto this last set.
2
The next result will relate the Apery sequen e and the minimal set of
generators of a strongly in reasing semigroup. More pre isely, sin e we know
that ( r )
X
fa0 ; : : : ; an 1g = si xi ; 0 si < ni ; i = 1; : : : ; r ;
i=1
7.4. APPLICATION TO SEMIGROUPS OF VALUES 137
Prsame order, we want to identify whi h aj orre-

but not ne essary in the
sponds to a given sum i=1 si xi , and whi h element of the Apery sequen e
orresponds to a given generator vi . This will be easy to answer when the
semigroup is strongly in reasing.
Theorem 1 Let v0 ; : : : ; vg be a strongly in reasing sequen e of integers and
let a0 ; : : : ; an 1 , where n = v0 , be the Apery sequen e of G = hv0 ; : : : ; vg i.
Then one has:
i) If (s1 ; : : : ; sg ) 2 E (v0 ; : : : ; vg ), then
r
X
aPr i=1 si n0 :::ni 1 = sivi :
i=1
ii) For i = 1; : : : ; g, vi = a e n .
i 1
Proof: The proof of (i) follows immediately from the fa ts we proved in

Lemmas 3 and 4 that and are maps preserving orders. To prove (ii) just
observe that (s1 ; : : : ; sg ) = (0; : : : ; 1; : : : ; 0), where 1 is in position i, gives us
that vi = an0 :::ni 1 = a e n .
i 1
2
7.4 Appli ation to Semigroups of Values

Sin e the semigroup of values S (f ) of a plane bran h (f ) is strongly in reas-
ing, from Proposition 5 its minimal system of generators v0 ; : : : ; vg forms a
ni e sequen e. Hen e from Proposition 2 the ondu tor of S (f ) is given by
g
X
= (ni 1)vi v0 + 1; (7.1)
i=1
and from Proposition 4, it follows that S (f ) is a symmetri semigroup, and
hen e from Proposition 3, is an even integer.
Proposition 7 Let (f ) be a plane bran h and let v0 ; : : : ; vg be the minimal
system of generators of S (f ). If is the ondu tor of S (f ), then
= ng vg g v0 + 1:
Proof: Proposition 2 ombined with Problem 6.2.3 imply that
= ng vg [vg (ng 1 1)vg 1 (n1 1)v1 ℄ v0 +1 = ng vg g v0 +1:

2
Corollary 1 Let (f ) be an algebroid irredu ible plane urve. If v0 ; : : : ; vg
is the minimal system of generators of S (f ) and its ondu tor, then
g
X
= (ei 1 ei )i 0 + 1:
i=1
Proof: From (6.3) we have that
vg = (n1 1)n2 ng 1 1 + (n2 1)n3 ng 12 + + (ng 1 1)g 1 + g ;

whi h repla ed in the formula of Proposition 7, gives the result, taking into
a ount that 0 = v0 and that ei = ni+1 ng (see Problems 6.1.1).
2
Corollary 2 Let f 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ be an irredu ible power series. Let n =
I(f; X ) and m = I(f; Y ). If is the ondu tor of S (f ), then
I(f; fY ) = + n 1; and I(f; fX ) = + m 1:
Proof: Suppose that f is regular in Y (the ase f regular in X is analo-
gous). From Theorem 6.4, orresponding to the ase k = g 1 and j = 1,
we have that
I(f; fY ) = (n e1 )1 + + (eg 2 eg 1 )g 1 + (eg 1 1)g ;
whi h is equal, from Corollary 1 of Proposition 7, to + n 1.
Let (x(T ); y(T )) be a primitive parametrization of (f ). From the hain
rule we have that fX (x(T ); y(T ))x0 (T ) + fY (x(T ); y(T ))y0 (T ) = 0, hen e
I(f; fX ) = mult(fX (x(T ); y(T )))
= mult(fY (x(T ); y(T ))y0 (T )) mult(x0 (T ))
= + n 1 + m 1 (n 1)
= + m 1:
2
In [Mi℄, Milnor introdu ed the following number:

K [[X; Y ℄℄
f := dimK
hfX ; fY i :
The theorem below, proved by Milnor by topologi al methods, was re-
proved algebrai ally by Risler in [R℄. First we need a proposition.
Proposition 8 Let f 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ be irredu ible and regular in Y . Then
I(f (1) ; (f (1) )Y1 ) = I(nf (1) + X1 (f (1) )X1 ; (f (1) )Y1 ):
Proof: Suppose that (f (1) )Y1 = p1 1 : : : pr r , where ea h pi is an irredu ible
power series. So,
r
X
I(f (1) ; (f (1) )Y1 ) = i I(f (1) ; pi );
i=1
and
X r
I(nf (1) + X1 (f (1) )X1 ; (f (1) )Y1 ) = i I(f (1) + X1 (f (1) )X1 ; pi ):
i=1

So it is suÆ ient to prove, for (p) any bran h of (f (1) )Y1 , that
I(f (1) ; p) = I(nf (1) + X1 (f (1) )X1 ; p): (7.2)

Suppose (p) parametrized by power series ('; ) in T . Then
d n (1) h i d'
' f ('; ) = 'n 1 nf (1) ('; ) + '(f (1) )X1 ('; ) : (7.3)
dT dT

d n (1)
Sin e mult ' f ('; ) = n mult(')+mult f (1) ('; ) 1; and
dT
h i d'
mult 'n 1 nf (1) ('; ) + '(f (1) )X1 ('; ) =
dT
(n 1)mult(') + mult nf (1) ('; ) + '(f (1) )X1 ('; ) + mult(') 1;
we get (7.2) from (7.3).
2
Theorem 2 Let (f ) be a plane bran h. If f is Milnor's number of (f ) and

the ondu tor of S (f ), then f = .
Proof: Suppose that f is irredu ible of multipli ity n and regular in Y
(the other ase is analogous). From the denition of stri t transform we have
X1n f (1) (X1 ; Y1 ) = f (X1 ; X1 Y1 ): (7.4)
Dierentiating expression (7.4) in Y1 we get
X1n (f (1) )Y1 = X1 fY1 (X1 ; X1 Y1 );
hen e
1
(f (1) )Y1 = f (X ; X Y ) = (fY ) (1) : (7.5)
X n 1 Y1 1 1 1
1
Dierentiating (7.4) in X1 we get
nf (1) + X1 (f (1) )X1 = (fX )(1) + Y1 (fY )(1) : (7.6)
So, from (7.6) we get
I(nf (1) + X1 (f (1) )X1 ; (fY )(1) ) = I((fX )(1) ; (fY )(1) );
hen e from Proposition 10 and (7.5) we get
I(f (1) ; (fY )(1) ) = I((fX )(1) ; (fY )(1) ); (7.7)
Now, using Proposition 5.5 we ge
I(f (1) ; (fY )(1) ) = n(n 1) + I(f; fY ) = n(n 1) + + n 1: (7.8)
and
I((fX )(1) ; (fY )(1) ) = (n 1)2 + I(fX ; fY ): (7.9)
Putting (7.7), (7.8) and (7.9) together we get the result.
2
Theorem 2 implies in parti ular that Milnor's number is invariant under
the relation of equisingularity of urves whi h, in turn, implies that it is
invariant under equivalen e of urves.
We now will relate the semigroup of a plane bran h (f ) with that of its
stri t transform (f (1) ).
Theorem 3 Suppose that (f ) is a plane bran h with tangent one (Y n )

and that I(f; Y ) is not divisible by n. Let v0 ; : : : ; vg is the minimal set of
generators of S (f ). Then the minimal system of generators of S ( (f )) is
given by
i) v0 < v10 < < vg0 if v0 < v10 ;
ii) v10 < v0 < v20 < < vg0 if v0 > v10 ; and v10 6 jv0 ;
iii) v10 < v20 < < vg0 if v0 > v10 ; and v10 jv0 ;
where
v02
vj0 = vj ; e = GCD(v0 ; : : : ; vj ); j = 1; : : : ; g:
ej 1 j
The proof of the above theorem is a onsequen e of Theorem 1 and will
be left as an exer ise.
Chapter 8
CONTACT AMONG
BRANCHES
In this hapter we will study the onta t among bran hes. This will provide
us the last and till now missing way to ompute the interse tion index of
two bran hes when both are given in parametri form. The onta t formula
is lassi al and has many appli ations. It was used by O. Zariski in [Z1℄ to
study the saturation of the lo al ring of a singular urve and by M. Merle in
[M℄ to des ribe the behaviour of the generi polar of a plane bran h.
8.1 The Conta t Formula

Let (f ) and (g) be two bran hes dened by two power series regular in Y ,
both with tangent line (Y ) and Puiseux parametrizations:
(
(f ) : x = Tn P
y = '(T ) = ii0 bi T i
( (8.1)
x 0 = T n0
(h) : P
y0 = (T ) = j j0 b0j T j ;
with hara teristi integers (0 ; : : : ; g ) and (00 ; : : : ; g0 0 ) respe tively.
Let and denote respe tively an nth and n0 th roots of unity. We will
say that the bran hes (f ) and (h) have onta t order 2 QI [ f1g, if
max; mult('(T n0 ) (T n ))
= :
nn0
143
144 CHAPTER 8. CONTACT AMONG BRANCHES
By hanging, if ne essary, the above Puiseux parametrizations of (f ) and

(h) by equivalent ones, we may suppose that
mult('(T n0 ) (T n ))
= :
nn0
If (f ) and (h) have distin t tangent lines then the onta t order is not
dened, and if they have same tangent line but distin t from (Y ), then we
hange oordinates in order that (Y ) be omes the ommon tangent line.
From the above denition it0 follows that if, (f ) and (h) have onta t order
, then the power series '(T n ) and (T n ) oin ide up to order nn0 1.
If S (f ) = hv0 ; : : : ; vg i and S (h) = hv00 ; : : : ; vg0 0 i, we will use, as previously,
the notation ni , ei , n0j and e0j for the asso iated integers to the vi and to the
vj0 respe tively (or whi h is the same to the i and the j0 , respe tively).
0
Remark 1 Observe that if mult('(T n ) (T n )) is realized by a power of
n 0 0 0
a term in '(T ), then nn = in for some integer i. Alternatively, if the
multipli ity is realized by a power of a term in (T n ), then nn0 = jn for
some integer j . So, either n or n0 is an integer and if, for example, n is
an integer with q i = n < q+1 , for some q (where we put g+1 = 1),
then eq divides n. Analogous result is valid in the other ase.
Proposition 1 Let (f ) and (h) be two bran hes with onta t order su h

that q < q+1 for some q 1. Then
n n
8
< 0iq
q
n ei i
> 1; if = n;
= = for
n0 e0i i0 >
: 0 i q; if > q :
n
Proof: Let us write
0 0 0 0 0
'(T n ) = bi0 T n i0 + bi1 T n i1 + + bir T n ir + bir+1 T n ir+1 +
and
(T n ) = b0j0 T nj0 + b0j1 T nj1 + + b0js T njs + b0js+1 T njs+1 +
with bi0 bir+1 6= 0, b0j0 b0js+1 6= 0 and n0 ir < nn0 n0 ir+1 .
Suppose that nn0 = minfn0 ir+1 ; njs+1 g, then r = s and
n0 i` = nj` ; bi = b0 ; ` = 0; : : : ; r;
` j`
8.1. THE CONTACT FORMULA 145
and bir+1 6= b0jr+1 if n0 ir+1 = njr+1 .

Now, sin e n0 q nn0 < n0 q+1 and
GCD(n0 n; n0 i0 ; : : : ; n0 i` ) = n0GCD(n; i0 ; : : : ; i` ) = nGCD(n0 ; j0 ; : : : ; j` );
the result follows from the denitions of the ei , e0j , i and j0 .
2
Corollary Let (f ) and (h) be two plane bran hes with hara teristi
integers respe tively (0 ; 1 ; : : : ; g ) and (00 ; 10 ; : : : ; g0 0 ). Suppose S (f ) =
hv0 ; : : : ; vg i and S (f 0) = hv00 ; : : : ; vg0 0 i and that (f ) and (h) have onta t order

with q < q+1 , where q 1, then
n n
8
< 0iq
> 1; if = q ;
n ei i vi n
= = = for
n0 e0i i0 vi0 >
: 0 i q; if > q
n:
Proof: From relations (6.4) we get the following:
n 0 n v v
0 = 0 = = i0 () 0 = 00 = = i0 :
n 0 i n v0 vi
The result now follows from Proposition 1.
2
Remark that the equalities n0 ei = ne0i , i = 0; : : : ; r, imply that ni = n0i
in the same range.
The above Corollary motivates the following denition:
( )
v v
= max j 2 IN; i0 = 00 ; 8i; 0 i j : (8.2)
j vi v0
If S (f ) = S (h), then = g = g0 . On the other hand, if S (f ) 6= S (h),
then +1 n0 6= 0 +1 n and the onta t order among (f ) and (h) satises
the inequality:
nn0 < maxf+1 n0; 0 +1 ng:
Thus, we have ( )
+1 0 +1
< max ; 0 ; (8.3)
n n
whi h is also valid when S (f ) = S (h) if we set, as we already did, g+1 = 1.
Re all the following denition:

Gi = f 2 K ; ei = 1g:
Theorem 1 Let (f ) and (h) be bran hes dened by power series regular in
Y , with tangent line (Y ), parametrized as in (8.1). Suppose that (f ) and

(h) have onta t order and let S (f ) = hv0 ; : : : ; vg i. If < 1 , then
n
I(f; h) = nn0 . In addition, if we put n0 = 1, then the assertions below are
equivalent.
q
i) < q+1 , for some q = 1 : : : ; g.
n n
I(f; h) vq n q
ii) = + :
mult(h) n0 : : : nq 1 n1 : : : nq
f
Proof: Let G0 =
Q
2 K ;1 n = 1g. Sin e f is asso iated to the Y -
polynomial 2G0 Y '(x n ) , it follows that
0 Y n0

I(f; h) = multf (T n ; (T )) = mult (T ) '(T n ) =
2G0
0 1
1 Y 0 1 X 0
mult (T n ) '(T n ) A = mult (T n ) '(T n ) =
n 2G0 n 2G0
+1 X
1 gX 0
mult (T n ) '(T n ) ;
n i=1 2Gi 1 nGi

where Gg+1 = ;. From the above formula it follows that if < 1 , then
n
I(f; h) = nn0 .

i) =) ii) Suppose now that q < q+1 , for some q = 1; : : : ; g. If we
n n
put G 1 = ;, then from Lemma 6.1, for 2 Gi 1 n Gi, i = 1; : : : ; q 1, we
have that 0
mult (T n ) '(T n ) = n0 i : (8.4)
At this point we divide our proof into two ases.
8.1. THE CONTACT FORMULA 147

Case 1) = q . In this ase, when
n
2 Gq 1, we have that
0 0
mult (T n ) '(T n ) = mult (T n ) '(T n ) = n0q = nn0 : (8.5)
The above equation together with (8.4) imply
0 1
qX1
1
I(f; h) = eq 1 nn0 + (ei 1 ei )n0 i A ;
n i=1
whi h from formula (6.1) gives

I(f; h) 1 vq
= eq 1 + eq 1 (vq q ) = :
mult(h) n n0 : : : nq 1
q
Case 2) < < q+1 . In this ase, for 2 Gq , we have that (8.5)
n n
holds. This together with (8.4) imply that
q !
1 X
I(f; h) = eq nn0 + (ei 1 ei )n0 i :
n i=1
From this last equality together with (6.1) and (6.4) we may on lude
that
I(f; h) 1 1
0 = eq + eq (vq+1 q+1 ) = eq + eq (nq vq q ) =
n n n
vq n q
+ :
n0 : : : nq 1 n1 : : : nq
ii) =) i) Suppose that, for some q = 1; : : : ; g,
I(f; h) vq n q
= + :
mult(h) n0 : : : nq 1 n1 : : : nq

If (f ) and (h) have onta t of order ~ , with q~ ~ < q~+1 , we have to
n n
prove that q~ = q and ~ = .
From the rst part of the proof, we have that q~ > 0 and
I(f; h) vq~ n~ q~
= + :
n0 n0 : : : nq~ 1 n1 : : : nq~
The proof will be omplete if we show that if q > 0, q0 > 0 and q0 6= q00 ,
then
80; 00 with nq0 0 < qn0+1 and nq00 00 < qn00+1 ;
we have
vq 0 n0 q0 vq00 n00 q00
+ 6
= +
n0 : : : nq0 1 n1 : : : nq0 n0 : : : nq00 1 n1 : : : nq00
:
Indeed, if q00 = q0 + 1, then from (6.4) we have

vq0 +1 n00 q0 +1
+
n0 : : : nq0 n1 : : : nq0 +1
n v:q:0 +1
:n 0
n 0 v 0 + q0 +1 q0
= q q
n :::n 0
=
1 q 1 q
vq 0 0 0 vq0 n0 q0
= + q +1 q > + ;
n0 : : : nq0 1 n1 : : : nq0 n0 : : : nq0 1 n1 : : : nq0
0 0
where the last inequality follows from the ondition q 0 < q +1 . The
n n
result now follows from these onsiderations.
2
Theorem 1 will allow us to ompute the interse tion index of two bran hes
when both are given in parametri form.
Problems
1.1) Determine the onta t order and the interse tion index for the following
pairs of bran hes:
a) (T 4 ; T 6 + T 8 + T 9 ) and (T 2 ; T 3 + T 4 + T 5 ).
b) (T 4 ; T 6 + T 8 + T 11 ) and (T 2 ; T 3 + T 4 + T 5 ).
1.2) Prove in details the Corollary of Proposition 1.
8.2 Pairs of Bran hes with Given Semigroups

Let F = hv0 ; : : : ; vg i and H = hv00 ; : : : ; vg0 0 i be two strongly in reasing semi-
groups. We will put vg+1 = 1. Our obje tive in this se tion will be to
determine the set
(F; H ) = fI(f; h); S (f ) = F and S (h) = H g :
8.2. PAIRS OF BRANCHES WITH GIVEN SEMIGROUPS 149
This will be done here in hara teristi zero, sin e we use Puiseux parametriza-
tion. In arbitrary hara teristi this was done in [B℄.
Motivated by the Corollary of Proposition 1, we dene the integer (F; H )
as being the integer in (8.2)
Theorem 2 With notation as above, we have
(F; H ) = fe0i 1 vi + je0i ei ; 0 i ; 0 j < i+1 g [ fI1 g
where e 1 = e0 1 = 1,
( )
vi+1 ni vi vi0+1 n0i vi0
i+1 = min ; ; i = 0; : : : ; ;
ei e0i
and (
e v0 +1 ; if v0 v0 +1 < v00 v+1
I1 = e0 v+1 ; if v0 v0 +1 > v00 v+1 :
Proof: We will prove a stronger result. Namely, for (f ) any xed bran h
with S (f ) = F and when h varies in su h a way that S (h) = H , then we
have
fI(f; h); h 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄; S (h) = H g = (F; H ):
The interse tion index I(f; h) will be omputed using the formula in
Theorem 1.
0
Re all from the Corollary of Proposition 1 that i0 = i for i = 0; : : : ; .
n n
If for some i = 0; : : : 1 we have
i0 i i+1 i0+1
=
n0 n
<
n
= 0 ;
n
(8.6)
then from Theorem 1 and the remark after the Corollary of Proposition 1
we have

vi n i 0
I(f; h) = n0 + = ei 1 vi + e0i (n i ):
n1 : : : ni 1 n1 : : : ni
Sin e e0i (n i ) = ei (n0 i0 ), it follows from Remark 1 that e0i (n
i ) = je0i ei for some integer j . Sin e 2 QI varies as in (8.6) then we have j
varying in the interval
n i i+1 i i0+1 i0
0j= < = :
ei ei e0i
Observe that for i = 0; : : : ; 1,

v nv 0 0 v0 n0 v0
i+1 = i+1 i i = i+1 i = i+1 0 i = i+1 0 i i ;
ei ei ei ei
we get part of (F; H ).
Now, if ( )
0 0
n0 n
= < min n+1 ; n+10 ;
then from Theorem 1,
!
v n
I(f; h) = n0 + = e0 1 v + je0 e ;
n1 : : : n 1 n1 : : : n
where j is an integer su h that
( )
n 0 0
0j= < min +1 ; +1 0 :
e e e
Putting
( ) ( )
0 0 v n v v0 n0 v0
+1 = min +1 ; +1 0 = min +1 ; +1 0 ;
e e e e
we get the rest of (F; H ), with the ex eption of I1 , if F 6= H .
The remaining possibility, in view of (8.3), is
( ) ( )
+1 0 +1 +1 0 +1
min ; 0 < max ; 0 :
n n n n
We will split our analysis into two ases.
+1 0
Case a) < +1 . Observe that this ondition is equivalent to
0 n n0
v+1 v+1
< 0 . In su h ase we must have = +1 , be ause, if otherwise,
n n n
+1 +1 0 +1
> , we would have = 0 , ontradi ting the denition of .
n n n
Hen e, from Theorem 1, we have
v
I(f; h) = n0 +1 = e0 v+1 = I1 :
n1 : : : n
8.2. PAIRS OF BRANCHES WITH GIVEN SEMIGROUPS 151
+1 0 +1
Case b) > 0 . The proof is analogous to that of ase a).
n n
2
Put = (F; H ) and let i+1 be as in Theorem 2. Consider the following
map
: f(i; j ); 0 i ; 0 j < i+1 g [ f1g ! (F; H ) IN
(i; j ) 7! e0i 1 vi + je0i ei ;
1 7! I1 :
Con erning the map we have the following result.
Proposition 2 If we give the lexi ographi al order to the domain of and
onsider 1 as its biggest element, then is an order preserving map.
Proof: Sin e the vi form a strongly in reasing sequen e we have
ei vi+1 > ei nivi = ei 1 vi ; 8i = 0; : : : g:

e v
The above inequality with the fa t that i0 = 00 for all i = 0; : : : ; imply
ei v0
that
e0i 1 vi > e0i 2 vi 1 ; i = 1; : : : ; : (8.7)
Let i and ` be integers su h that 0 ` < i . To prove that
e0 vi + jei e0 > e0 v` + ke` e0 ;
i 1 i ` 1 `
v nv v nv
for all j and k su h that 0 j < i+1 i i and 0 k < `+1 ` ` , it is
ei e`
enough to show that

v`+1 n` v`
e0i 1 vi > e0` 1 v` + 1 e` e0` = e0` v`+1 e` e0` ;
e`
whi h is true be ause of (8.7).
On the other hand, if i = `, it is lear that for j > k, we have
e0 vi + jei e0 > e0 v` + ke` e0 :
i 1 i ` 1 `
To on lude the proof we have to show that
I1 > e 1 v + (+1 1)e0 e :
If F = H , this is obvious sin e I1 = 1.

Suppose now that F 6= H . We will prove the above inequality only in
the ase v0 v0 +1 < v+1 v00 , sin e the other ase is similar.
v0 +1 n0 v0
Remark that in the present ase we have that +1 = . So,
e0
e0 1 v + (+1 1)e0 e < e0 1 v + +1 e0 e =
v0 n0 v0
e0 1 v + +1 0 e0 e = e v0 +1 = I1:
e
2
8.3 Maximal Conta t

Let (f ) be a xed bran h with semigroup of values G of genus g. If (h) is any
bran h, we will denote the genus of S (h) by gen(h). We want to introdu e
a notion of maximal onta t among (f ) and all bran hes (h), under the
restri tion that gen(h) is less or equal to a given integer , where < g.
There is no hope to dene this maximal onta t by taking
supfI(f; h); gen(h) g;
sin e this last set is not bounded.
Indeed, let G = hv0 ; v1 ; v2 ; : : :i of genus at least 2. If we take Hn =
hn; n + 1i, we have (G; Hn) = 0, and sin e v0(n + 1) < nv1, for suÆ iently
large n, then the element I1 of (G; Hn ) is v0 (n + 1), for suÆ iently large
n. This shows that
supfI(f; h); gen(h) 1g supfv0 (n + 1); n 2 INg = 1:
In ontrast we have the following result.
Proposition 3 Let (f ) be a given bran h with semigroup of values G =
hv0 ; : : : ; vg i. Let be an integer less than g. Then

I(f; h) ev
M (f ) := max ; gen(h) = 2+1 :
mult(f )mult(h) v0
8.3. MAXIMAL CONTACT 153
Proof: We learly have

max (G; H )
M (f ) = sup ; i ; gen(H ) = i :
i;H mult(G)mult(H )
Suppose that H = hv00 ; : : : ; vi0 i with i . From Theorem 2, for (G; H ),

we have (
e v0 if v v0 < v0 v
I1 = e0 v+1 ; if v0 v0 +1 > v00 v+1 :
+1 0 +1 0 +1
Sin e in any ase we have
I1
v0 v00
evv2+1 ;
0
with equality veried if v0 v0 +1 > v00 v+1 , and sin e
ei 1 vi = ei ni vi < ei vi+1 ;
it follows that e v +1
M (f ) = :
v02
2
We will say that a bran h (h) su h that gen(h) has maximal onta t
of order with (f ) if we have
I(f; h)
= M (f ):
mult(f )mult(h)
Dene v v
G = h 0 ; : : : ; i;
e e
whi h is strongly in reasing semigroup.
Sin e (G; G ) = and v 0 +1 = 1, it follows that in (G; G ) we have
I1 = e0 v +1 = v +1 :
Hen e the maximal onta t of order with (f ) o urs for a bran h (h)
su h that S (h) = G .
Index
A genus 102
algebroid plane urve 39
Apery sequen e 118 H
Apery set 119 Hensel's Lemma 17
asso iated elements 3 homomorphism 9, 11
B I
bran h 40 ini ial form 3
bran hes of urves 40 interse tion index 80
invertible power series 2
C irredu ible urve 40
anoni al resolution 96 isomorphism 11, 14
Cau hy sequen e 6 L
omplete metri spa e 5 Laurent power series 15
ondu tor 73, 103
onta t order 141 M
maximal onta t 151
D minimal system of generators 102
dense subring 12 multipli ity 3, 45
E multipli ity sequen e 96
equiresoluble bran hes 96 P
equisingular plane bran hes 105 plane algebroid urves 39
exa t sequen e 75 plane bran hes 39
F parametrization 56
formal geometry 43 partial derivative 9
formal power series 1 polar part 15
primitive parametrization 56
G proje tive spa e 63
Galois group 43 Puiseux parametrization 55
galoisian extension 43
gaps 102
154
INDEX 155
R
redu ed power series 36
redu tion 36
regular urve 40
regular element of order m 21
regular point 60
resultant 31
ring of formal power series 2
T
tangent one 42
tangent lines 42
triangular inequality 5
S
semigroup 101
singular urve 40
stri t transform 91
strongly in reasing semigroup 112,
134
substitution map 9
substitution of series 8
summable family 6
V
valuation 74
156 INDEX
Bibliography
[An℄ G. Angermuller, Die Wertehalbgruppe einer ebenen irreduziblen al-
gebroiden Kurve, Math. Zeits hr. 153, 1977, pp 267-282.
[Ap℄ R. Apery, Sur les Bran hes Superlineaires des Courbes Algebriques,
CRAS, 222, 1946, pp 1198-1200.
[Az℄ A. Azevedo, The Ja obian Ideal of a Plane Algebroid Curve, PhD
Thesis, Purdue, 1967.
[B℄ V. Bayer, Semigroup of Two irredu ible Algebroid Plane Curves,
Manus ripta Math. 39, 1985, pp 207-241.
[BK℄ E. Brieskorn, H. Knorrer, Plane Algebrai Curves, Birkhauser
Verlag, 1986.
[C℄ A. Campillo, Algebroid Curves in Positive Chara teristi , Springer
Le ture Notes in Mathemati s 813, 1980.
[DS℄ A. Di kenstein, C. Sessa, An Integral Criterion for the Equivalen e
of Plane Curves, Manus ripta Math. 37, 1982, pp 1-9.
[H℄ A. Hefez, M.E.Hernandes, Computational Methods in the Lo-
al Theory of Curves, Publi a ~
oes Matemati as, IMPA, Rio de
Janeiro, 2001.
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Math. 41, 1977, pp 103-111.
[Mi℄ J. Milnor, Singular Points of Complex Hypersurfa es, Annals of
Mathemati s Studies, 61, Prin eton Univ. Press, 1968.
[P℄ M. Puiseux, Re her hes sur les Fon tions Algebriques, Journal de
Math. (1) 15, 1850, pp. 365-480.
157
158 BIBLIOGRAPHY
[R℄ J.J. Risler, Sur L'ideal Ja obien D'une Courbe Plane, Bull. So .
Math. Fran e, 99, 1971, pp 305-311.
[W℄ R. Walker, Algebrai Curves, Springer-Verlag, 1978.
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mann, Paris, 1986.
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trand, 1960.

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IRREDUCIBLE PLANE CURVE

To my parents from whom I learned the essen e of life.

the equation f (X; Y ) = 0, where f is a polynomial fun tion in two omplex

How to study a urve in a small neighborhood of a singular point? In

where M = hX; Y i is the maximal ideal of C[ I X; Y ℄, orresponding to the

In Chapter 6, we introdu e the semigroup of values asso iated to a plane

Niteroi, May 2002

6 SEMIGROUPS OF PLANE BRANCHES 101

1.1 Rings of Power Series

It is easy to verify that, with these operations, R is a unitary ommu-

Conversely, suppose that P0 6= 0. Then the system (1.1) has a solution

mult(f g) = mult(f ) + mult(g) < 1:

We will denote by MR = hX1 ; : : : ; Xr i the ideal of R generated by

b) Show that mult(P (g1 ; : : : ; gs ))  n.

1.2 Metri on Power Series Rings

Proposition 5 The pair (R; d) is a omplete metri spa e.

Proof: To verify that d is a metri on R, rst remark that d(f; g)  0.

Definition Let F = ff;  2 g be a given family of power series in R.

Proposition 6 Let ff ;  2 g, and fg ;  2 g be two summable families

iii) The family ff g ; (; ) 2 g is summable and

Proof: (i) The set

Sin e for m > n,

(iii) Let n and 0n be as above, and de ne

Corollary Given g1 ; : : : ; gs 2 MR , f; h 2 K [[Y1; : : : ; Ys℄℄ and a 2 K , then

In the next se tion we will see that any homomorphism of K -algebras is

2.1) Suppose that f 2 R is su h that f (0) = a 6= 0. Using the identity in

Proof: (i) Let f 2 MS and suppose that T (f ) 62 MR . Then we may

Sin e T (Yi ) = gi , for i = 1; : : : ; s, it follows that mult(gi ) = 1, for all

Proof: Suppose that A is dense in R, and let P be a homogeneous poly-

it follows that fn 2 A is su h that

3.1) Let T : S ! R be a homomorphism of K -algebras. Show that T

1.4 The Laurent Field

Proposition 9 Given a K -endomorphism T of K ((X )), we have that T (X ) 2

1.5 Hensel's Lemma

Proof: If n = degY f , sin e f is moni , then n = deg f (0; Y ) = r + s.

5.1) Find the three initial terms of an element v 2 C[[

2.1 The Division Theorem

We will denote in what follows by R0 the ring K [[X1 ; : : : ; Xr 1 ℄℄ and by

It is lear that mult(q0 )  0 and that mult(R0 )  1, where

Theorem 2 (Weierstrass Preparation Theorem) Let F 2 R be a gi-

F U = Xrm + A1 Xrm 1 + A2 Xrm 2 + + Am :

The ondition on F to be regular is not so restri tive as it may appear

Lemma 2 Let K be an in nite eld. Given a nite family F of non-zero ho-

We get immediately from this the following orollary:

The \polynomial" Xrn + A1 Xrn 1 + A2 Xrn 2 + + An asso iated to F ,

2.2 Fa torization of Power Series

Lemma 3 Let F1 ; : : : ; Fs be moni polynomials in R0 [Xr ℄. Then F1 Fs

Proof: It suÆ es to prove the result for s = 2.

Conversely, suppose that F 2 R0 [Xr ℄ is a redu ible pseudo-polynomial

Proposition 1 Consider the polynomials f = a0 Y n + a1 Y n 1 + + an

Proposition 2 Let f; g 2 A[Y ℄ n A. Then there exist p; q 2 A[Y ℄, with

The result now follows in view of (2.6), putting q = A1 Y m 1 + + Am ,

Multiplying in the above determinant, the se ond row by T , the third

It then follows that

Substituting the indeterminates Xi by i and Yj by j , the result follows.

4.1) Using resultants, solve the following system:

4.2) Let A be a domain and let f; g; h 2 A[Y ℄. Show that

3.1 Algebroid Plane Curves

This means that

We will return, in the last se tion of this hapter, on the geometri al

Con erning regular urves, we have the following result:

Proof: Sin e mult(f ) = 1, it follows that f = aX + bY + , with a 6= 0 or

Suppose now that (f ) is an algebroid plane urve of multipli ity n, then

Niteroi, May 2002

b) Show that mult(P (g1 ; : : : ; gs )) n.

Proof: To verify that d is a metri on R, rst remark that d(f; g) 0.

Definition Let F = ff; 2 g be a given family of power series in R.

Proposition 6 Let ff ; 2 g, and fg ; 2 g be two summable families

iii) The family ff g ; (; ) 2 g is summable and

(iii) Let n and 0n be as above, and dene

It is lear that mult(q0 ) 0 and that mult(R0 ) 1, where

Lemma 2 Let K be an innite eld. Given a nite family F of non-zero ho-

that is, for all 2 Un we have that

Hen e bi = bi i for all i i0 . If is a primitive root then bi = 0 for all i not

= mult(ai0 (X )) + (n i0 )mult() i0 + (n i0 )mult():

Let C be a plane bran h dened by an irredu ible power series f of

Proposition 4 Let Cf U be an analyti urve through the origin, where

If h 2 K [[X; Y ℄℄ and B K [[X; Y ℄℄, we will denote by h the residual

Proof: H' is obviously a homomorphism and hf i Ker(H' ).

We will dene the valuation asso iated to f as being the fun tion

Theorem 4 Let f; g; h 2 M, an automorphism of K [[X; Y ℄℄ and u and

The homomorphism transforms the ideal hX; Y i into the ideal

ii) If m n n, then mult( (f )) = mult(f ) = n. Moreover, if m n > n,

On the other hand, if m n = n, then the tangent line of (f ) has as

Proof: Sin e n doesn't divide m,by the eu lidian algorithm we have m =