Professor Bidyadhar Subudhi

Dept. of Electrical Engineering

National Institute of Technology, Rourkela
Control System-I1, 6
th
B.Tech
Spring 2012
Advantages of State Space
Approach
Classical
State space approach/Modern
Control Approach
Transfer Function
Linear Time Invariant
System, SISO
Laplace Transform,
Frequency domain
Only Input-output
Description: Less Detail
Description on System
Dynamics

State Variable Approach
Linear Time Varying,
Nonlinear, Time Invariant,
MIMO
Time domain
Detailed description of
Internal behaviour in
addition to I-O properties
2
CLASSICAL APPROACH (TRANSFER
FUNCTION)
The classical approach or frequency domain
technique is based on converting a systems
differential equation to a transfer function.
It relates a representation of the output to a
representation of the input.
It can be applied only to linear, time-invariant
systems.
It rapidly provides stability and transient response
information.
The state-space approach (also referred to as the modern, or
time-domain, approach) is a unified method for modeling,
analyzing, and designing a wide range of systems.
The state-space approach can be used to represent nonlinear
systems. Also, it can handle, conveniently, systems with
nonzero initial conditions and time varying
The state-space approach is also attractive because of the
availability of numerous state-space software package for the
personal computer.
MODERN APPROACH (STATE-
SPACE)
It can be used to model and analyze nonlinear
(backlash, saturation), time-varying (missiles with
varying fuel levels), multi-input multi-output
systems (i.e. an airplane) with nonzero initial
conditions.

But it is not as intuitive as the classical approach.
The designer has to engage in several calculations
before the physical interpretation of the model is
apparent.
STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION
Select a particular subset of all possible system
variables and call them state variables.
For an nth-order system, write n simultaneous
first-order differential equations in terms of state
variables.
If we know the initial conditions of all state
variables at t
0
and the system input for t>t
0
, we can
solve the simultaneous differential equations for
the state variables for t>t
0
.

System variable: Any variable that responds to an input or initial conditions in
a system.

State variables: The smallest set of linearly independent system
Variables such that the values of the members of the set at time
along with known forcing function completely determine the value of all
system variables for all .

Sate vector: A vector whose elements are the state variables.

State space: The n-dimensional space whose axes are the state variables.

State equations: A set of n simultaneous, first-order differential equations with
n variables, where the n variables to be solved are the state variables.

Output equation: The algebraic equation that expresses the output variables of
a system as linear combinations of the state variables and the inputs.
0
t
0
t t >
Concept of State Variable
State Space
The state variables are the smallest number of states that are
required to describe the dynamic nature of the system, and it
is not a necessary constraint that they are measurable.

The manner in which the state variables change as a function
of time may be thought of as a trajectory in n dimensional
space, called the state-space.

Two-dimensional state-space is sometimes referred to as the
phase-plane when one state is the derivative of the other.
8
Dynamic System
9
Dynamic System must involve elements that memorize the
values of the input for

Integrators in CT serve as memory devices

Outputs of integrators are considered as internal state variables
of the dynamic system

Number of state variables to completely define the dynamics of
the system=number of integrators involved


Representation of a system in state-space

10
RLC Circuit
11
12
EXAMPLE
+
i(t)
L v(t)
R
L
di
dt
Ri v t
v t Ri t
+ =
=
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
(state equation)
Output equation
L sI s i V s
I s
R s s
i
s
i t
R
e i e
R
L
R
L
R L t R L t
[ ( ) ( )] ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( / ) ( / )
=
=
+
|
\

|
.
|
+
+
= +

0
1 1 1 0
1
1 0
Assuming that v(t) is a unit step and knowing i(0), taking the LT of the state
equation
Writing the equations in matrix-vector form

i
v 0
i
v
0
v(t)
c
R
L
1
L
1
C c
1
L

(
=

(
+

(
Assuming the voltage across the resistor as the output
| |
v (t) Ri(t) R 0
i
v
R
c
= =

(
Example: Given the electric network, find a state-space representation.
(Hint: state variables and , output )
C
v
L
i
) (
/ 1
0
0 / 1
/ 1 ) /( 1
t v
L i
v
L
C RC
i
v
L
C
L
C
(

+
(

=
(

| |
(

=
L
C
R
i
v
R i 0 / 1
R
i
Block Diagram of CT CS in SS
16
The general form of state and output equations for a linear,
time-invariant system can be written as
Du + Cx = y Bu + Ax = x
Where x is the nx1 state vector, u is rx1 input vector, y is the mx1
output vector. A is nxn state matrix, B is nxr, C is mxn and D is
mxr matrices. For the previous example
| | 0 = D 0 R = C

0
= B
0
- -
= A
v
i
= x
L
R
1
L
1
L
R
c
(

C
System Description
18
Consider a MIMO System with n integrators

r inputs

m outputs

Define n outputs of integrators as state variables
Dynamics of
the System:
The outputs
19
Define
20
Linearized
about
operating
points
Time Varying/Invariant Systems
21
Time Varying System (f and g involve explicitly t)
Time Invariant System (f and g do not involve explicitly t)
State & Output Equation:
Matrices/Vectors
22
A(t)= State Matrix
B(t)= Input Matrix
C(t)=Output Matrix
D(t)=Direct Transmission Matrix
State-space Equations
DC Servo Motor
Selection of State Variables
Simulation Diagrams/Block Dagrams
Transfer Function from SS Equations
Evaluation of Transfer Function Matrix
Linearization of State Equations
Linearisation about Nominal Trajectory
Perturbations
Ex Spin Stabilized Satellite
Solution of State Equations
State Transition Matrix
Laplace Transform Method (STM
Computation)
STM using MATLAB
Total Response
System Response Using MATLAB
LTI Viewer
Total Response using Symbolic Math
MATLAB
SS Manipulations in MATLAB
Natural Modes
Natural Motions
Eigenvalue Problem
Diagonalisation
Rapid Calculation of Modal Matrix
Diagonalisation Repeated Eigen Values
Case
Engineering/Scientific Theories
A model or framework for understanding
A set of statements closed under certain rules of
inference
Validated & tested (not mere conjectures)
Summarizes (infinitely) many practical situations
Requires abstraction
Types
Categorization (system of naming things)
Summarizes past experiences
Predicts future outcomes
Tool to design with
State space theory
super theory (physics, chemistry, etc hence abstract)
Helps understand engineering analysis and design techniques
CT vs DT
Discrete time state equations
Continuous time state equations
Discrete time State Equations
( 1) ( ( ), ( ), )
( ) ( ( ), ( ), )
X t F X t U t t
Y t G X t U t t t
+
+ =
= e
( 1) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
X t A t X t B t U t
Y t C t X t D t U t t
+
+ = +
= + e
( 1) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
X t AX t BU t
Y t CX t DU t t
+
+ = +
= + e
Possibly nonlinear, most general, hardest to analyze
Linear, possibly time-varying
Linear & time-invariant, easiest to analyze, provides most
convenient design techniques
Continuous time State Equations
( ) ( ( ), ( ), )
( ) ( ( ), ( ), )
X t F X t U t t
Y t G X t U t t t
+
=
= e
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
X t A t X t B t U t
Y t C t X t D t U t t
+
= +
= + e
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
X t AX t BU t
Y t CX t DU t t
+
= +
= + e
Possibly nonlinear, most general, hardest to analyze
Linear, possibly time-varying
Linear & time-invariant, easiest to analyze, provides most
convenient design techniques
Solve LTI DT state equations
Free response
Forced response
Weighting sequence (Markov parameters)
External equivalence
Impulse response
Convolution

Solve LTI CT state equations
Scalar equation
Vector-matrix equation
Matrix exponential
Existence, uniqueness, Lipschitz condition
Free response, forced response
State transition matrix
Linearity
Complete response
Impulse response
convolution

Discretization

STATE SPACE REPRESENTATION OF DYNAMIC
SYSTEMS
Consider the following n-th order differential equation in which the forcing
function does not involve derivative terms.
d y
dt
a
d y
dt
a
dy
dt
a y b u
Y s
U s
b
s a s a s a
n
n
n
n n n
n n
n n
+ + + + =
=
+ + + +

1
1
1 1 0
0
1
1
1

( )
( )
Choosing the state variables as
x y, x y, x y, , x
d y
dt
x x , x x , , x x
x a x a x a x b u
1 2 3 n
n 1
n 1
1 2 2 3 n-1 n
n n 1 n 1 2 1 n 0
= = = =
= = =
= +

x
x
x
x
x
x
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
a a a a a
x
x
x
x
x
x
1
2
3
n 2
n 1
n n n 1 n 2 2 1
1
2
3
n 2
n 1
n

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
0
0
0
0
0
b
u
y = [1 0 0 0 0]x
0

EXAMPLE
| |
Y s
U s
s
s s s
x
x
x
x
x
x
u
y
x
x
x
( )
( )

=
+ + +

(
(
(
=

(
(
(

(
(
(
+

(
(
(
=

(
(
(
3 2
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
14 56 160
0 1 0
0 0 1
160 56 14
0
1
14
1 0 0
State Space Representation of
system with forcing function
involves Derivatives
Consider the following n-th order differential equation in
which the forcing function involves derivative terms.
d y
dt
a
d y
dt
a
dy
dt
a y
b
d u
dt
b
d u
dt
b
du
dt
b u
Y s
U s
b s b s b s b
s a s a s a
n
n
n
n n n
n
n
n
n n n
n n
n n
n n
n n
+ + + +
= + + + +
=
+ + + +
+ + + +

1
1
1 1
0 1
1
1 1
0 1
1
1
1
1
1

( )
( )
Define the following n variables as a set of n state variables
u x u
dt
du
dt
u d
dt
u d
dt
y d
x
u x u u u y x
u x u u y x
u y x
n n n n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n 1 1 1 2
2
2
1
1
1
0
2 2 2 1 0 3
1 1 1 0 2
0 1

= =
= =
= =
=
| | | | |
| | | |
| | |
|

.
.
.

. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
x
x
x a a a a
x
x
x
x
n
n n n n
n
n
n
1
2
1
1 2 1
1
2
1
1
2
1
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+

|
|
|
| |
|
|
n
n
u
y
x
x
x
u

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+ 1 0 0
1
2
0

.
.
.
CONTROLLABLE CANONICAL FORM
d y
dt
a
d y
dt
a
dy
dt
a y
b
d u
dt
b
d u
dt
b
du
dt
b u
Y s
U s
b s b s b s b
s a s a s a
n
n
n
n n n
n
n
n
n n n
n n
n n
n n
n n
+ + + +
= + + + +
=
+ + + +
+ + + +

1
1
1 1
0 1
1
1 1
0 1
1
1
1
1
1

( )
( )
Y s
U s
b
b a b s b a b b a b
s a s a s a
Y s b U s Y s
Y s
b a b s b a b b a b
s a s a s a
n
n n n n
n n
n n
n
n n n n
n n
n n
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )

( )

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
= +
+ + +
+ + + +
= +
=
+ + +
+ + + +

0
1 1 0
1
1 1 0 0
1
1
1
0
1 1 0
1
1 1 0 0
1
1
1

U s
Y s
b a b s b a b b a b
U s
s a s a s a
Q s
n
n n n n
n n
n n
( )

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
1 1 0
1
1 1 0 0
1
1
1
+ + +
=
+ + + +
=

s Q s a s Q s a sQ s a Q s U s
Y s b a b s Q s b a b sQ s
b a b Q s
n n
n n
n
n n
n n
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
= +
= + +
+

1
1
1
1 1 0
1
1 1 0
0

Defining state variables as follows:
X s Q s
X s sQ s
X s s Q s
X s s Q s
n
n
n
n
1
2
1
2
1
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
=
=
=
=

sX s X s
sX s X s
sX s X s
n n
1 2
2 3
1
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
=
=
=

x x
x x
x x
n n
1 2
2 3
1
=
=
=

sX s a X s a X s a X s U s
x a x a x a x u
Y s b U s b a b s Q s b a b sQ s
b a b Q s
b U s b a b X s
n n n n
n n n n
n
n n
n n
n
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
= +
= +
= + + +

+ +

1 1 2 1
1 1 2 1
0 1 1 0
1
1 1 0
0
0 1 1 0

+
=

= + + + +


( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
b a b X s
b a b X s
y b a b x b a b x b a b x b u
n n
n n
n n n n n
1 1 0 2
0 1
0 1 1 1 0 2 1 1 0 0
+
| | u b
x
x
x
b a b b a b b a b y
u
x
x
x
x
a a a a x
x
x
x
n
n n n n
n
n
n n n n
n
0
2
1
0 1 1 0 1 1 0
1
2
1
1 2 1
1
2
1
.
.
.
1
0
.
.
.
0
0
.
.
.
1 0 0 0
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
.
.
.
+
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

+
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

BLOCK DIAGRAM
u +
b
0

+ + +
+ + + +
+
y
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
b
1
-a
1
b
0
b
2
-a
2
b
0
b
n-1
-a
n-1
b
0
b
n
-a
n
b
0

} }
}
a
1
a
2

a
n-1

a
n

x
n
x
n-1

x
2
x
1

OBSERVABLE CANONICAL FORM
s Y s b U s s a Y s bU s
s a Y s b U s a Y s b U s
Y s b U s bU s a Y s
b U s a Y s b U s a Y s
X s
n n
n n n n
s
s
n n
s
n n
n
s
n n
[ ( ) ( )] [ ( ) ( )]
[ ( ) ( )] ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) [ ( ) ( )]
[ ( ) ( )] [ ( ) ( )]
( ) [
+ +
+ + =
= + +
+ +
=

0
1
1 1
1 1
0
1
1 1
1
1 1
1
1
0
1

bU s a Y s X s
X s b U s a Y s X s
X s b U s a Y s X s
X s b U s a Y s
Y s b U s X s
n
n
s
n
s
n n
s
n n
n
1 1 1
1
1
2 2 2
2
1
1 1 1
1
1
0
( ) ( ) ( )]
( ) [ ( ) ( ) ( )]
( ) [ ( ) ( ) ( )]
( ) [ ( ) ( )]
( ) ( ) ( )
+
= +
= +
=
= +

sX s X s a X s b a b U s
sX s X s a X s b a b U s
sX s X s a X s b a b U s
sX s a X s b a b U s
x a x b
n n n
n n n
n n n n
n n n n
n n
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(
= +
= +
= +
= +
= +

1 1 1 1 0
1 2 2 2 2 0
2 1 1 1 1 0
1 0
1

n n
n n n n
n n n
n
a b u
x x a x b a b u
x x a x b a b u
y x b u

= +
= +
= +

0
2 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 0
0
)
( )

( )

.
.
.

. . .
. . . .
. . . .
.
.
.
.
x
x
x
x
a
a
a
a
x
x
x
x
b a b
b a
n
n
n
n
n
n
n n
n n
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
0
1
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 0
0 0 1

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+

| |
1 0
1 1 0
1
2
0
0 0 1
b
b a b
u
y
x
x
x
b u
n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+
BLOCK DIAGRAM
b
0

a
1
a
n-1

a
n

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
} } }
y
u
b
n
-a
n
b
0
b
n-1
-a
n-1
b
0
b
1
-a
1
b
0

x
1

x
2
x
n-1

x
n

DIAGONAL CANONICAL FORM
Consider that the denominator polynomial involves only
distinct roots. Then,
Y s
U s
b s b s b s b
s p s p s p
b
c
s p
c
s p
c
s p
n n
n n
n
n
n
( )
( ) ( )( ) ( )
=
+ + + +
+ + +
= +
+
+
+
+ +
+

0 1
1
1
1 2
0
1
1
2
2

where, c
i
, i=1,2, , n are the residues corresponding p
i

Y s b U s
c
s p
U s
c
s p
U s
c
s p
X s
s p
U s sX s p X s U s
X s
s p
U s sX s p X s U s
X s
s p
U s sX s p X s U s
n
n
n
n
n n n
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= +
+
+
+
+ +
+
=
+
= +
=
+
= +
=
+
= +
0
1
1
2
2
1
1
1 1 1
2
2
2 2 2
1
1
1

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
x p x u
x p x u
x p x u
Y s b U s c X s c X s c X s
y c x c x c x b u
n n n
n n
n n
1 1 1
2 2 2
0 1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2 0
= +
= +
= +
= + + + +
= + + + +

| |

.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
x
x
p
p
p
x
x
x
u
y c c c
x
x
x
b u
n
n
n
n
n
1
2
1
2
1
2
1 2
1
2
0
0
0
1
1
1

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=

(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+
BLOCK DIAGRAM
y
u
x
1

x
2

x
n

c
1

b
0

c
2

c
n

+
+
+
+
+
1
1
s p +
1
2
s p +
1
s p
n
+
JORDAN CANONICAL FORM
Consider the case where the denominator polynomial involves multiple roots.
Suppose that the p
i
s are different from one another, except that the first three are
equal.
Y s
U s
b s b s b s b
s p s p s p s p
Y s
U s
b
c
s p
c
s p
c
s p
c
s p
c
s p
n n
n n
n
n
n
( )
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
=
+ + + +
+ + + +
= +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+

0 1
1
1
1
3
4 5
0
1
1
3
2
1
2
3
1
4
4

Y s b U s
c
s p
U s
c
s p
U s
c
s p
U s
c
s p
U s
c
s p
U s
X s
c
s p
U s
X s
c
s p
U s
X s
X s s p
X s
c
s p
U s
X s
X
n
n
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
= +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
=
+
=
+
=
+
=
+

0
1
1
3
2
1
2
3
1
4
4
1
1
1
3
2
2
1
2
1
2 1
3
3
1
2
1
+
3 1
4
4
4
1
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
s s p
X s
c
s p
U s
X s
c
s p
U s
n
n
n
=
+
=
+
=
+

sX s p X s X s x p x x
sX s p X s X s x p x x
sX s p X s U s x p x u
sX s p X s U s x p x u
sX s p X s U s x
n n n
1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
2 1 2 3 2 1 2 3
3 1 3 3 1 3
4 4 4 4 4 4
( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

= + = +
= + = +
= + = +
= + = +
= +

n n n
n n
n n
p x u
Y s b U s c X s c X s c X s c X s
y b u c x c x c x c x
= +
= + + + + +
= + + + + +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 1 1 2 2 3 3
0 1 1 2 2 3 3

BLOCK DIAGRAM
b
0

c
3

c
2

c
1

c
4

c
n

x
3

x
2
x
1

x
4

x
n

.
.
.
.
.
.
1
1
s p +
1
1
s p +
1
4
s p +
1
1
s p +
1
s p
n
+
u
y
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

. .
.
x
x
x
x
x
p
p
p
p
p
x
x
x
x
x
u
y c c
n n n
1
2
3
4
1
1
1
4
1
2
3
4
1 2
1 0 0 0
0 1
0 0 0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0
0
1
1
1

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=

(
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
| |

c
x
x
x
b u
n
n
1
2
0

(
(
(
(
+
Example: Express in CCF/OCF/DCF
107
CCF
OCF
DCF
Converting a Transfer Function to State Space
A set of state variables is called phase variables, where each
subsequent state variable is defined to be the derivative of the
previous state variable.
Consider the differential equation



Choosing the state variables
u b y a
dt
dy
a
dt
y d
a
dt
y d
n
n
n
n
n
0 0 1
1
1
1
= + + + +

u b x a x a x a
dt
y d
x
dt
y d
x
x
dt
y d
x
dt
y d
x
x
dt
y d
x
dt
dy
x
x
dt
dy
x y x
n n
n
n
n
n
n
n 0 1 2 1 1 0
1
1
4
3
3
3
2
2
3
3
2
2
2 2
2 1 1
+ = = =
= = =
= = =
= = =

u
b x
x
x
x
x
a a a a a a x
x
x
x
x
n
n
n n
n
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

+
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

0
1
3
2
1
1 4 3 2 1 0
1
3
2
1
0
0
0
0
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0

| |
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

n
n
x
x
x
x
x
y
1
3
2
1
0 0 0 0 1

Converting a transfer function with constant term in numerator

Step 1. Find the associated differential equation.




Step 2. Select the state variables.
Choosing the state variables as successive derivatives.




24 26 9
24
) (
) (
2 3
+ + +
=
s s s s R
s C
r c c c c
s R s C s s s
24 24 26 9
) ( 24 ) ( ) 24 26 9 (
2 3
= + + +
= + + +

c x
c x
c x

=
=
=
3
2
1
1
3 2 1 3
3 2
2 1
24 9 26 24
x y
r x x x x
x x
x x
=
+ =
=
=

Figure 3.10a.
Transfer function;
b. equivalent block diagram showing phase-variables.
Note: y(t) = c(t)
Converting a transfer function with polynomial in numerator
Step1. Decomposing a transfer function.











Step 2. Converting the transfer function with constant term in numerator.

Step 3. Inverse Laplace transform.
0 1
2
2
3
3
1
1
) (
) (
a s a s a s a s R
s X
+ + +
=
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1 0 1
2
2
s X b s b s b s C s Y + + = =
1 0
1
1
2
1
2
2
) ( x b
dt
dx
b
dt
x d
b t y + + =
0 1
2
2
3
3
1
1
) (
) (
a s a s a s a s R
s X
+ + +
=
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1 0 1
2
2
s X b s b s b s C s Y + + = =
3 2 2 1 1 0
) ( x b x b x b t y + + =

equivalent block
diagram.
Transfer function;
decomposed
transfer function
Converting from state space to a transfer function
Du Cx y
Bu Ax x
+ =
+ =
Given the state and output equations



Take the Laplace transform assuming zero initial conditions:

(1)

(2)

Solving for in Eq. (1),


or
(3)
Substitutin Eq. (3) into Eq. (2) yields



The transfer function is
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
s s s
s s s s
DU CX Y
BU AX X
+ =
+ =
) (s X
) ( ) ( ) ( s s s BU X A I =
) ( ) ( ) (
1
s s s BU A I X

=
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1
s s s s DU BU A I C Y + =

) ( ] ) ( [
1
s s U D B A I C + =

D B A I C
U
Y
+ =
1
) (
) (
) (
s
s
s
Ex. Find the transfer from the state-space representation
u
(
(
(

+
(
(
(

=
0
0
10
3 2 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
x x
| |x 0 0 1 = y
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
3 2 1
1 0
0 1
3 2 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
) (
s
s
s
s
s
s
s A I
Solution:
1 2 3
1 2
3 1
1 3 2 3
) det(
) (
) (
2 3
2
2
2
1
+ + +
(
(
(

+
+ + +
=

=

s s s
s s s
s s s
s s s
s
s adj
s
A I
A I
A I
1 2 3
) 2 3 ( 10
) (
) (
2 3
2
+ + +
+ +
=
s s s
s s
s
s
U
Y
116
117
118
Output Eq. modifies to
119
Invariance of Eigenvalues
120