Chapter 26

Ohms Law
In this chapter we will introduce the following new concepts:
-Electric current ( symbol i )
-Electric current density vector (symbol )
-Drift speed (symbol v
d
)
-Resistance (symbol R ) and resistivity (symbol ) of a
conductor -Ohmic and non-Ohmic conductors

We will also cover the following topics:
-Ohms law
-Power in electric circuits
J
(26 - 1)
Consider the conductor shown in fig.a.
All the points inside the conductor and
on its surface are at the same potential.
The free electrons inside the conductor
move at random directi
Electric current
ons and thus
there is not net charge transport.
We now make a break in the conductor
and insert a battery as shown in fig.b.
Points A and B are now at potentials
and , respectively.
( the
A B
A B
V V
V V V = voltage of the battery)
The situation is not static any more but
charges move inside the conductor so that
there is a net charge flow in a particular
direction. This net flow of electric charge
we define as "electric currrent"
A
B
(26 - 2)
i
+q
conductor
v
i
- q
conductor
v
Consider the conductor shown in the figure
It is connected to a battery (not shown) and
thus charges move through the conductor
Consider one of the cross sections through
the conductor ( aa or bb or c ' ' '
Current = rate at which charge flow
c )
The electric current is defined
Current SI Unit: C/s known as the "Ampere
s
s:
"
a
dq
i
t
i
d
=
An electric current is represented by an arrow which has
the same direction as the charge velocity. The sense of the
current arrow is defined as follows:
If the current is due to t
Current direction :
1. he motion of charges
the current arrow is to the charge velocity
If the current is due to the motion of charges
the current arrow is to the charge veloci

t
v parallel
2.
ant
nega
iparallel
posit
tive

ive
y v
(26 - 3)
dq
i
dt
=
i
- q
conductor
v
A
J

Current density is a vector that is defined as follows:
Its magnitude
The direction of is the same as that of the current
The current through a condu

i
J
A
J
=
Current density
2
SI unit for J : A/m
ctor of cross sectional
area is given by the equation:
if the current density is constant.
If is not constant then:


i JA
i J d
A
J A
=
=
}
i
+q
conductor
v
A
J
1
We note that even though the current density is a vector
the electric current is not. This is illustrated in the
figure to the left. An incoming current branches at
point a into two currents, ,
o
i
i
1 2
2
and .
Current This equation expresses the
conservation of charge at point a. Please note
that we have not used vector addition
o
i i i
i
= +

i
J
A
=
(26 - 4)
When a current flows through a conductor
the electric field causes the charges to move
with a constant drift speed . This drift speed
is superimposed on the random motion of the
charges.
d
v
Drift speed
Consider the conductor of cross sectional area shown in the figure. We assume
that the current in the conductor consists of positive charges. The total charge
within a length is given by:
A
q L q nA =
( )
. This charge moves through area
in a time . The current
/
The current density
In vector form:
d
d d
d
d
d
L e A
L q nALe
t i nAv e
v t L v
nAv e i
J nv e
A A
J nev
= = = =
= = =
=
d
J nev =
d
J nv e =
(26 - 5)
+
-
i
V
If we apply a voltage across a conductor (see figure)
a current will flow through the conductor.
We define the conductor resistance as the ratio
V
the Ohm (symbol
A

V
R
i
V
i
=
= SI
R
Unit for R:
esist ance
A conductor across which we apply a voltage = 1 Volt
and results in a current = 1 Ampere is defined as
having resistance of 1
Why not use the symbol "O" instead of " "
Suppose we had


)
V
i
O
O
O Q :
A: a 1000 resistor.
We would then write: 1000 O which can easily
be mistaken read as 10000 .
A conductor whose function is to provide a
specified resistance is known as a "resistor"
The symbol is
O
O
given to the left.

V
R
i
=
(26 - 6)
R
E
+
-
i
V
E
Unlike the electrostatic case, the electric field in the
conductor of the figure is not zero. We define as
resistivity of the conductor the ratio
In vector form: E
J
J
E

=
=
Resi
SI u
stivit
nit r
y
fo
2
The conductivity is defined as:
Using the previou
V/m V
m m
A/m
s equation takes the for
1
m
A
: J E
o

o
=
= = O
=
:
Consider the conductor shown in the figure above. The electric field inside the
conductor . The current density We substitute and into
/
equation and get:
/
V i
E J E J
L A
E V L V A A
R
J i A i L L

= =
= = = =
L
R
A
=
L
R
A
=
E J = J E o =
(26 -7)
In the figure we plot the resistivity of
copper as function of temperature .
The dependence of on is almost
linear. Similar dependence is observed
T
T

Variation of resistivity with temperature

in many conductors.
( )
The following empirical equation is used for many practical applications:
The constant is known as the
"temperature coefficient of resistivity". The constant is a reference temp
o o o
o
T T
T
u o o =
( )
o
8
o
erature
usually taken to be room temperature ( 293 K ) and is the resistivity
at . For copper 1.69 10 m
temperature enters the equation above as a difference .
Thus either th
o
o
o
T
T
T T

=
= O
Note :
e Celsius or the Kelvin temperature scale can be used.
( )
o o o
T T u o =
(26 -8)
A resistor was defined as a conductor whose resistance does not change
with the voltage applied across it. In fig.b we plot the current through a resistor
as function of . The plot

V i
V
Ohm's Law:
(known as " - curve" ) is a straight line that passes through
the origin. Such a conductor is said to be " " and it obeys Ohm's law that states
The current through a conductor is prop
:
ortional
i
i
V
Ohmic
Not all conductors abey Ohm's law (these are known as " " )
An example is given in fig.c where we plot versus
to the voltage
for a semic
applied acro
onductor diod
ss it
e.
The ratio /
.
i V
V
V
i
non- Ohmic
(and thus the resistance ) is not constant. As a matter of fact the diode
does not conduct for negative voltage values.
Ohm's "law" is in reality a definition of Ohmic conductors
(defined a
R
Note :
s the conductors that obey Ohm's law)
(26 - 9)
In order to understand why some materials such as
metals obey Ohm's law we must look into the details
of the conduction process at the atomic level.
A schematic of an O
A Microspopic view of Ohm's law:
6
hmic conductor such as copper is
shown in the figure. We assume that there are free
electrons that move around in random directions
with an effective speed = 1.6 10 m/s. The free
electrons suffer
eff
v
collisions with the stationary
copper atoms.
A schematic of a free electron path is shown in the figure in the figure using the dashed
gray line. The electron starts at point A and ends at point B. We now assume that an
electric field is appl E ied. The new electron path is indicated by the dashed green line
Under the action of the electric force the electron acquires a small drift speed .
The electron drifts to the right and ends at po
d
v
int B. '
(26 - 10)
F
d
v
F
d
v
Consider the motion of one of the free electrons.
We assume that the average time between collisions
with the copper atoms is equal to . The electic field
exerts a force on the electron, result F eE
t
= ing in an
acceleration . The drift speed is given
by the equation: ( )
d
F eE
a
m m
eE
v a
m
t
t
= =
= = eqs.1
2
2
We can also get from the equation: ( )
If we compare equations 1 and 2 we get:
If we compare the last equation with: we conclude h

t at:
d d d
d
J
v J nev v
ne
J eE m
v
m
ne
E J
ne m ne
E J
t
t

= =
| |
= = =
|
=
=
\ .
eqs.2
This is a statement of Ohm's law (the resistance of the
conductor does not depend on voltage and thus ) This is because
, , and are constants. The time can also be considered be
ind

epende
E
m n e t
nt of since the drift spees is so much smaller than .
d eff
E v v
(26 - 11)
Consider circuit shown in the figure. A battery of voltage
is connected across the terminals a and b of a device. This
can be a resistor, a motor, etc. The battery main
V
Power in electric circuits :
tains a
potential difference between the terminals a and b and
thus a current flows in the circuit as shown in the
figure. During the time interval a charge moves
between the terminals. W
V
i
dt dq idt =
e note that > .
a b
V V
The potential energy of the charge decreases by an amount
Using energy conservation we conclude that the lost energy has been transfered
by the battery to the device nad has been converted
dU Vdq Vidt = =
into some other form of energy.
The rate at which energy is transfered to the device is known
V A It is kno

wn a
as " "
s the "Watt" (symb
and it is
equal to:
ol

dU Vidt
P Vi
dt dt

= = =
powe
SI unit for P :
r
W).
P iV =
(26 - 12)
If the device connected to the battery is a resistor R then the energy transfered by the
battery is converted as that appears on R. If we combine the equation
with Ohm's law: , we
P iV
V
i
R
=
=
heat
2
2
get the following two equivalent expressions for
the rate at which heat is dissipated on R.
and

V
P i R P
R
= =
V
2
P i R =
2

V
P
R
=
(26 - 13)