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Nervous Systems
Each neuron
May communicate with thousands of other neurons
Figure 48.1
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Concept 48.1: Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons and supporting cells All animals except sponges
Have some type of nervous system
Organization of Nervous Systems The simplest animals with nervous systems, the cnidarians
Have neurons arranged in nerve nets
Nerve net
Figure 48.2a
Nerve ring
Figure 48.2b
Figure 48.2c
Segmental ganglia
Figure 48.2d, e
Ganglia
Figure 48.2f, g
In vertebrates
The central nervous system consists of a brain and dorsal spinal cord The PNS connects to the CNS
Brain
Sensory ganglion
Figure 48.2h
Sensor
Integration
Motor output
Effector
Figure 48.3
Hamstring muscle
Spinal cord (cross section) Sensory neuron Motor neuron 1 The reflex is initiated by tapping the tendon connected to the quadriceps (extensor) muscle. Interneuron
6 The interneurons inhibit motor neurons that supply the hamstring (flexor) muscle. This inhibition prevents the hamstring from contracting, which would resist the action of the quadriceps.
Figure 48.4
Synapse
Postsynaptic cell
Figure 48.5
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Synaptic terminals
(b) Interneurons
Figure 48.7
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50 m
Oligodendrocytes (in the CNS) and Schwann cells (in the PNS)
Are glia that form the myelin sheaths around the axons of many vertebrate neurons
Node of Ranvier Layers of myelin Axon Schwann cell Axon Figure 48.8
Myelin sheath
Nodes of Ranvier
Concept 48.2: Ion pumps and ion channels maintain the resting potential of a neuron Across its plasma membrane, every cell has a voltage
Called a membrane potential
Microelectrode 70 mV
Figure 48.9
[Na+] 15 mM
[K+] 150 mM
+ +
[Cl] + 120 mM +
Plasma membrane
Figure 48.10
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The concentration of Na+ is higher in the extracellular fluid than in the cytosol
While the opposite is true for K+
5 mM KCL
15 mM NaCl
Cl
+
Na+ Sodium + channel
K+ +
Cl
Artificial membrane
Concept 48.3: Action potentials are the signals conducted by axons If a cell has gated ion channels
Its membrane potential may change in response to stimuli that open or close those channels
50
Threshold
Resting potential Hyperpolarizations
(a) Graded hyperpolarizations produced by two stimuli that increase membrane permeability to K+. The larger stimulus produces Figure 48.12a a larger hyperpolarization.
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50
100 0 1 2 3 4 5 Time (msec) (b) Graded depolarizations produced by two stimuli that increase membrane permeability to Na+. The larger stimulus produces a Figure 48.12b larger depolarization.
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Action potential
0
50
Threshold
Resting potential 100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Time (msec) (c) Action potential triggered by a depolarization that reaches the threshold.
Figure 48.12c
An action potential
Is a brief all-or-none depolarization of a neurons plasma membrane Is the type of signal that carries information along axons
K+
50
100 2 Depolarization A stimulus opens the activation gates on some Na+ channels. Na+ influx through those channels depolarizes the membrane. If the depolarization reaches the threshold, it triggers an action potential. Extracellular fluid Na+ + + + + + + + + Plasma membrane Cytosol Sodium channel K+ Potassium channel + +
Na+ + + + +
Figure 48.13
Resting state The activation gates on the Na+ and K+ channels are closed, and the membranes resting potential is maintained.
Undershoot Both gates of the Na+ channels are closed, but the activation gates on some K+ channels are still open. As these gates close on most K+ channels, and the inactivation gates open on Na+ channels, the membrane returns to its resting state.
At the site where the action potential is generated, usually the axon hillock
An electrical current depolarizes the neighboring region of the axon membrane
Axon Action potential
+ ++ Na + +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + 1
An action potential is generated as Na+ flows inward across the membrane at one location.
K+ + + + + K+
Action potential
+
2 + + + + + + + +
+ +
Na
+ +
The depolarization of the action potential spreads to the neighboring region of the membrane, re-initiating the action potential there. To the left of this region, the membrane is repolarizing as K+ flows outward. The depolarization-repolarization process is repeated in the next region of the membrane. In this way, local currents of ions across the plasma membrane cause the action potential to be propagated along the length of the axon.
Figure 48.14
+ +
+
+
K+ + + + + K+
Action potential
+ + + Na + +
3 + +
+ +
Cell body
+ ++ + ++
+ + + ++
Axon
Figure 48.15
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Concept 48.4: Neurons communicate with other cells at synapses In an electrical synapse
Electrical current flows directly from one cell to another via a gap junction
Figure 48.16
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5 m
5 Presynaptic membrane
Na+ K+
Figure 48.17
Neurotransmitter binding
Causes the ion channels to open, generating a postsynaptic potential
Since most neurons have many synapses on their dendrites and cell body
A single EPSP is usually too small to trigger an action potential in a postsynaptic neuron
Terminal branch of presynaptic neuron Postsynaptic neuron E1
70 E1 E1
Figure 48.18a
Axon hillock
Action potential
E1
E1
Figure 48.18b
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In spatial summation
EPSPs produced nearly simultaneously by different synapses on the same postsynaptic neuron add together E
E2
1
Action potential
E1 + E2
Figure 48.18c
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Through summation
An IPSP can counter the effect of an EPSP
E1
E1
E1 + I
Figure 48.18d
Major neurotransmitters
Table 48.1
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Acetylcholine Acetylcholine
Is one of the most common neurotransmitters in both vertebrates and invertebrates Can be inhibitory or excitatory
Concept 48.5: The vertebrate nervous system is regionally specialized In all vertebrates, the nervous system
Shows a high degree of cephalization and distinct CNS and PNS components
Central nervous system (CNS)
Brain Spinal cord Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Cranial nerves Ganglia outside CNS Spinal nerves
Figure 48.19
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The central canal of the spinal cord and the four ventricles of the brain
Are hollow, since they are derived from the dorsal embryonic nerve cord
Gray matter
White matter
Ventricles
Figure 48.20
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The Peripheral Nervous System The PNS transmits information to and from the CNS
And plays a large role in regulating a vertebrates movement and internal environment
Sympathetic division
Parasympathetic division
Enteric division
Figure 48.21
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Thoracic
Inhibits activity of stomach and intestines Inhibits activity of pancreas Stimulates glucose release from liver; inhibits gallbladder Location of postganglionic neurons: some in ganglia close to target organs; others in a chain of ganglia near spinal cord
Stimulates gallbladder
Figure 48.22
Synapse
Sacral
Hindbrain
Midbrain
Hindbrain
Forebrain
Figure 48.23a
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Mesencephalon Metencephalon
Diencephalon
Myelencephalon
Figure 48.23b
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Cerebral hemisphere
Diencephalon: Hypothalamus
Thalamus Pineal gland (part of epithalamus) Brainstem: Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata
Central canal
Figure 48.23c
(c) Adult
The pons
Also participates in visceral functions
The midbrain
Contains centers for the receipt and integration of several types of sensory information
Arousal and Sleep A diffuse network of neurons called the reticular formation
Is present in the core of the brainstem
Eye Reticular formation Input from touch, pain, and temperature receptors
Figure 48.24
The cerebellum
Is also involved in learning and remembering motor skills
The Diencephalon The embryonic diencephalon develops into three adult brain regions
The epithalamus, thalamus, and hypothalamus
The epithalamus
Includes the pineal gland and the choroid plexus
The thalamus
Is the main input center for sensory information going to the cerebrum and the main output center for motor information leaving the cerebrum
Dark
1
Days of experiment 5
10
15
20
Figure 48.25
12
16
20
24
12
12
16
20
24
12
CONCLUSION The northern flying squirrels internal clock can run in constant darkness, but it does so on its own cycle, which lasts about 24 hours and 21 minutes. External (light) cues keep the clock running on a 24-hour cycle. Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Basal nuclei
Figure 48.26
In mammals
The cerebral cortex has a convoluted surface called the neocortex
Concept 48.6: The cerebral cortex controls voluntary movement and cognitive functions Each side of the cerebral cortex has four lobes
Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe
Figure 48.27
Temporal lobe
Occipital lobe
Toes
Genitalia
Figure 48.28
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Hearing words
Seeing words
Min
Figure 48.29
Speaking words
Generating words
Prefrontal cortex
Hippocampus
Tail Head
Figure 48.31a, b
(b) Sensitization involves interneurons that make synapses on the synaptic terminals of the siphon sensory neurons. When the tail is shocked, the interneurons release serotonin, which activates a signal transduction pathway that closes K+ channels in the synaptic terminals of the siphon sensory neurons. As a result, action potentials in the siphon sensory neurons produce a prolonged depolarization of the terminals. That allows more Ca2+ to diffuse into the terminals, which causes the terminals to release more of their excitatory neurotransmitter onto the gill motor neurons. In response, the motor neurons generate action potentials at a higher frequency, producing a more forceful gill withdrawal.
Gill
PRESYNAPTIC NEURON
2 Glutamate binds to AMPA receptors, opening the AMPAreceptor channel and depolarizing the postsynaptic membrane.
NO
NMDA receptor
3 Glutamate also binds to NMDA receptors. If the postsynaptic membrane is simultaneously depolarized, the NMDA-receptor channel opens.
Figure 48.32
5 Ca2+ initiates the phosphorylation of AMPA receptors, making them more responsive. Ca2+ also causes more AMPA receptors to appear in the postsynaptic membrane.
Concept 48.7: CNS injuries and diseases are the focus of much research Unlike the PNS, the mammalian CNS
Cannot repair itself when damaged or assaulted by disease
Growth cone
No turning back. Now the axon synthesizes receptors that bind to Slit, a repulsion protein released by floor plate cells. This prevents the axon from growing back across the midline.
Figure 48.33a, b
(a) Growth of an interneuron axon toward and across the midline of the spinal cord (diagrammed here in cross section)
(b) Growth of a motor neuron axon away from the midline of the spinal cord
Figure 48.34
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The induction of stem cell differentiation and the transplantation of cultured stem cells
Are potential methods for replacing neurons lost to trauma or disease
Diseases and Disorders of the Nervous System Mental illnesses and neurological disorders
Take an enormous toll on society, in both the patients loss of a productive life and the high cost of long-term health care
Schizophrenia is characterized by
Hallucinations, delusions, blunted emotions, and many other symptoms
In major depression
Patients have a persistent low mood
Figure 48.35
Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings