introduction

There is three party

• Sender
• Receiver
• Carrier
 What we have at sender side
• Higher layer- the sender writes the letter,
insert the letter in an envelop, writes the
sender and receiver addresses and drops
the letter in a mail box.
• Middle layer- the letter is picked by a letter
carrier and delivered to the post office.
• Lower layer- the layer is sorted at the post
office, a carrier transports the letter.
 On the way
• Branch office-> central office-> ………
 At receiver site
• Lower layer – The carrier transport the
letter to the post office.
• Middle layer – the letter is sorted and
delivered to the recipient’s mailbox
• Higher layer – the receiver picks up the
letter, open the envelope and read
The International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) developed the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) Reference Model to describe how information is
transferred from one machine to another, from the
point when a user enters information using a keyboard
and mouse to when that information is converted to
electrical or light signals transferred along a piece of
wire or radio waves transferred through the air. It is
important to understand that the OSI Reference Model
describes concepts and terms in a general manner,
and that many network protocols such as IP fail to fit
nicely into the scheme explained in ISO’s model.
 The OSI Reference Model:
• Through the 1970s, proprietary systems
were the rule
• In 1974, the ISO developed the Open
Systems Interconnect (OSI) Ref. Model
• The pieces needed to construct a network
• A basis for standardization
• The OSI Model is helpful for
understanding a wide variety of networks
 Advantages
• ISO developed the seven-layer model to
help vendors and network administrators
gain a better understanding of how data is
handled and transported between
networking devices, as well as to provide
a guideline for the implementation of new
networking standards and technologies.
 The OSI Reference Model
• Seven Layers
• Each layer provides a set of functions to
the layer above, and relies on the
functions of the layer below
• Each layer communicates with its peer
layer on another node by sending
messages back and forth.
OSI Model Layers
 OSI Layers
� Application
• Network applications such as file transfer
� Presentation
• Data formatting and encryption
� Session
• Establishment and maintenance of
sessions
 OSI Layers (cont.)

� Transport
• End-to-end delivery
� Network
• Delivery of packets, including routing
� Data-link
• Transfer of units of information, framing and
error checking
� Physical
• Transmission of binary data
 The Physical Layer
� Function:
• Accept a raw string of bits and deliver it across a link
� Key issues:
• The physical characteristics of interfaces and medium
• Representation of bits - Encoding of bits
• Data rate – it also define the rate of transmission of bits.
• Synchronization of bits – same wave length
• Line configuration – connection of the devices to media –p2p
• Physical topology -
• Connection establishment & termination
• Transmission mode – simple, half and full duplex
• repeating, or amplification to extend range of transmission
 The Data Link Layer
� Purpose:
• Provide error-free transmission across a
single link
� Functions:
• Framing
• Physical addressing
• Error detection & Correction
• Flow control
• Access control
 The Network Layer
� Purpose:
-Deliver packets from sending computer to receiving
computer (host-to-host) across a communications network.
-Shields higher layers from the details of how the data get
to their destination.
� Addressing : How do you figure out which machine to
send the packet to?
� Routing: – What’s the best set of links from here to
there?
� Congestion control: What if one intermediate node gets
flooded with packets from many quarters?
 The Transport Layer
� Purpose:
– Provide end-to-end delivery, from one
computer (host) to another.
� Issues:
– Establishing/terminating connection
– Flow Control
– Error detection & correction
– Quality of service
– Multiplexing
 The transport layer..
The transport layer is responsible for the actual
mechanics of a connection, where it can provide
both reliable and unreliable delivery of data. For
reliable connections, the transport layer is
responsible for error detection and correction:
when an error is detected, the transport layer will
resend the data, thus providing the correction. For
unreliable connections, the transport layer
provides only error detection—error correction is
left up to one of the higher layers (typically the
application layer).
 The Transport Layer
� Does many of the same things as the
data link layer

but…

� The two endpoints are across a network,

not just across a wire.
 The Session Layer
� Purpose:
– Provide a means of controlling the dialog
between two end users (applications)
� Issues:
– dialogue management (half- vs. full duplex)
– synchronization & recovery management
� The session layer is not often used in
existing systems
 Session Layer
The session layer is responsible for initiating the
setup and teardown of connections. In order to
perform these functions, the session layer must
determine whether data stays local to a computer or
must be obtained or sent to a remote networking
device. In the latter case, the session layer initiates
the connection. The session layer is also
responsible for differentiating among multiple
network connections, ensuring that data is sent
across the correct connection as well as taking data
from a connection and forwarding it to the correct
application.
 The Presentation Layer
� Formatting the data for transmission
– End-systems may represent at data in
many ways.
– Looks at the structure of the data
– Presentation-layer functions are today
handled by application protocols
 The presentation layer
• The presentation layer is responsible for defining how
information is presented to the user in the interface that they
are using. This layer defines how various forms of text,
graphics, video, and/or audio information are presented to
the user. For example, text is represented in two different
forms: ASCII and EBCDIC. ASCII (the American Standard
Code for Information Interchange, used by most devices
today) uses seven bits to represent characters. EBCDIC
(Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code,
developed by IBM) is still used in mainframe environments
to represent characters. Text can also be shaped by
different elements, such as font, underline, italic, and bold.
 The Application Layer
� Purpose:
– Provide general-purpose network-based
functions to users
• File transfer
• Electronic Mail
• Directory lookup
• Virtual terminal
• Network management (sort of)
• World-wide Web
 APPLICATION LAYER
• The seventh layer, or topmost layer, of
the OSI Reference Model is the
application layer. It provides the interface
that a person uses to interact with the
application. This interface can be
command-line-based or graphics-based.