Truss Structures

Kuliah ke-3
Oleh: Dr. Rudi W. Prastianto

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 1

Definitions
Truss structure  a structure
composed of bar elements that are
connected together by frictionless pins.
Plane truss  all bar elements lying in
a common plane (2 dimensional plane)
Space truss  all bar elements lying
in a 3 dimensional space

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 2

Bar Element
y
ŷ
x̂, û
T
2
L
d̂ 2x , f̂ 2x
1
T

d̂ 1x , f̂1x

x
Bar Element
 Linear-elastic bar (or truss) element
 pin-connected trusses
 Prismatic (constant cross-section)
 Tensile forces T directed along the bar
applied at nodes 1 and 2
 Global coordinate system (x,y)
 Local coordinate system
 x̂, ŷ 
 Length L, Cross-sectional Area A, Modulus
of Elasticity E

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 4

 Hooke’s law   E
Strain-displ. dû
relationship
 
dx̂
Force equilibrium A x̂  T  A

d  dû 
Governing Eq. for
linear-elastic bar
 AE   0
dx̂  dx̂ 
Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 5
Assumptions
The bar cannot resist shear forces.
That is: f̂1ŷ  f̂ 2ŷ  0
Effects of transverse
displacements are ignored.
Hooke’s law applies.
That is:  x  E x

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 6

Step 1 - Select the Element Type.

The bar element is selected

with the properties as
previously discussed.

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 7

Step 2 - Select a Displacement
Function

Assume a displacement function

û
Assume a linear function.

û  a1  of
Number a 2 x̂coefficients = number
of d-o-f
Write in matrix form:
a1 
û   1 x̂  
a 2 
Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 8
Express û as function of d̂1x and d̂ 2x

uˆ (0)  a1  a2 (0)  dˆ1 x  a1

uˆ ( L)  a1  a2 ( L)  dˆ2 x  a2 L  dˆ1 x

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 9

  dˆ 2x  dˆ 1x 
uˆ    xˆ  dˆ 1x
 L 
 
 xˆ xˆ   d̂1x 
û  1    
 L L  dˆ 2x 
 d̂1x 
û   N1 N2   
d̂ 2x 
Where :
xˆ xˆ
N1  1  and N 2 
L L

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 10

 Displacement plotted along length of bar.

y
û
d̂ 2x x̂

2
d̂ 1x L

1


x
Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 11
Step 3 - Define Strain/Displacement
and Stress/Strain Relationships
 dˆ 2x  dˆ 1x 
uˆ    ˆ
x  ˆ
d 1x
 L 


duˆ

 ˆ  dˆ
d 2x 1x 
dxˆ L
  E
Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 12
Step 4 - Derive the Element
Stiffness Matrix and Equations

T  A

T  AE  AE
 
 d̂ 2x  d̂ 1x 

 L 
 
 
 d̂ 1x  d̂ 2x 
f̂1x   T  AE 
 L 
 

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 13

Step 4 - Derive the Element
Stiffness Matrix and Equations

f̂ 2x  T

 d̂ 2x  d̂ 1x
f̂ 2x  T  AE
 
 L 
 

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 14

Step 4 - Derive the Element
Stiffness Matrix and Equations

 f̂1x  AE  1  1 d̂ 1x 
     
f̂ 2x  L   1 1  d̂ 2x 

 
k̂ 
AE  1  1

L  1 1 

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 15

 Step 5 - Assemble the Element
Equations to Obtain the Global
Equations and Introduce the B.C.

 K     k̂ 
N
(e )

e 1

 F    f̂ 
N
(e )

e 1

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 16

Step 6 - Solve for Nodal
Displacements

Obtain :
 K   d   F
Then Solve!

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 17

Step 7 - Solve for Element
Forces

Once displacements at each

node are known, then substitute
back into element stiffness equations
to obtain element nodal forces.

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 18

Three Bar Assembly
3000 lb

1 2 3 4
1 3 x
2
30 in 30 in 30 in
90 in

Elements 1 & 2 Element 3

E = 30 x 106 psi E = 15 x 106 psi
A = 1 in2 A = 2 in2

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 19

For element 1 :
 f̂ 1 x   k 1  k 1   d̂ 1 x 
   
 f̂ 2 x    k 1 k 1   d̂ 2 x 

For element 2 :
 f̂ 2 x   k 2  k 2   d̂ 2 x 
   
 f̂ 3 x    k 2 k 2   d̂ 3 x 

For element 3 :
 f̂ 3 x   k 3  k 3   d̂ 3 x 
   
 f̂ 4 x    k 3 k 3   d̂ 4 x 
For elements 1 & 2 :
 f̂ 1 x
  k 1  k 1   d̂ 1 x 
   
   k 1
 f̂ 2 x k 1   d̂ 2 x 
A 1 E1
k1 
L1
6
A 1  1 E 1  30 x 10 L 1  30
 1   30 x 10 6

k1 
 30 
For elements 1 & 2 :
 1  1
 k̂ 
(1) 6
 10  
  1 1 
6
A 2  1 E 2  30 x 10 L 2  30
 k̂    k̂ 
(2) (1)
For element 3 :
 f̂ 3 x
  k 3  k 3   d̂ 3 x 
   
   k 3
 f̂ 4 x k 3   d̂ 4 x 
A 3E3
k3 
L3
6
A 1  2 E 1  15 x 10 L 1  30
 2   15 x 10 6 
k3 
 30 
 For element 3 :
 1  1
 k̂ 
(3) 6
 10  
  1 1 

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 24

 Assemble Global force matrix
(1)
F1x  f̂1x
(1) ( 2)
F2x  f̂ 2x  f̂ 2x
( 2) ( 3)
F3x  f̂ 3x  f̂ 3x
( 3)
F4x  f̂ 4x

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 25

Global stiffness matrix
 k1  k1 0 0 
 k k1  k 2  k2 
0 
K  
 1
0  k2 k2  k3  k3
 
 0 0  k3 k3 
 1 1 0 0
 1 2  1 0 
 K   10 6  
 0  1 2  1
 
0 0 1 1 

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 26

Applying Boundary conditions
 F1x   1 1 0 0   d 1x 
F    1 2  1 0  d 
 2x  6   2x 
   10  
F3x   0  1 2  1 d 3x 
F4x   
0 0  1 1  d 4x 

B.C.' s
d 1x  0 d 4x  0

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 27

Matrix partitioning
3000 6
2  1 d 2 x 
   10    
 0   1 1  d 3 x 

Solution :
d 2 x  0.002 in d3 x  0.001 in

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 28

Back substitution
 F1 x   1 1 0 0  0 
    
 F2 x    1 2  1 0   0.002 
6
   10   
 F3 x   0  1 2  1   0.001 
    
 F4 x   0 0  1 1   0 
 F1 x    2000 lb 
   
 F2 x   3000 lb 
  
 F3 x   0 lb 
   
 F4 x    1000 lb 
Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 29
Checking

F1x + F4x = F2x (equal in magnitude,

opposite in direction)
Equilibrium of the bar assemblage 
verified

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 30

Transformation of a Vector
in 2 Dimensions
Local coordinates  convenient to
represent individual element.
Global coordinates  convenient to
represent whole structure.
Developing a transformation matrix 
global stiffness matrix for a bar
element.

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 31

Transformation of a Vector in
2 Dimensions
y
ŷ

d
j x̂

ĵ
î
i x

d  d x i  d y j  dˆ x î  dˆ y ĵ
 Transformation of a Vector in
2 Dimensions
ŷ y

b  j x̂
ĵ
î

a 
a b
i x
• Relate i & j  iˆ & ˆj ??
 Relationship: local & global unit vector
ab  i i = unit vector
a  i cos  Law of Cosines
i 1 Magnitude of unit vector
a  cos 
b  sin 
a  cos  î
a in iˆ direction,
b  sin  (  ĵ) b in  ĵ direction.
i  cos  î  sin  ĵ
Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 34
Similarly,
a  b  j
a   cos  ĵ
b   sin  î
j  sin  î  cos  ĵ

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 35

d  d x i  d y j  dˆ x î  dˆ y ĵ
d x (cos  î  sin  ĵ)  d y (sin  î  cos  ĵ)
 dˆ x î  dˆ y ĵ Combine in each
same unit vector

d x cos   d y sin   dˆ x
- d x sin   d y cos   dˆ y

dˆ x   C S  d x 
ˆ      In matrix form
d y    S C d y 
Transformation matrix

 C S
  Tranformat ion matrix
  S C 

C  cos θ
S  sin θ
Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 37
Global Stiffness Matrix

f̂1x  AE  1  1 d̂ 1x  Local

      coordinate
f̂ 2x  L   1 1  d̂ 2x  system

 f̂    k̂   d̂
Want :
 f    k   d

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 38

Global Stiffness Matrix (cont. …)
 f    k   d

 f1x   d 1x 
f  d 
 1y   1y 
 f     d   
f
 2x  d
 2x 
f 2y  d 2y 
   

In global coordinate:
* 4 comp. of force
* 4 comp. of displacement
Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 39
Global Stiffness Matrix (cont. …)

d̂ 1x  d 1x cos   d 1y sin  Transformation

relationship
d̂ 2x  d 2x cos   d 2y sin 
 d 1x 
d 
d̂ 1x  C S 0 0   1y 
    
d̂ 2x   0 0 C S  d 2x 
d 2y 
 
 d̂   T  d
*

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 40

Similarly,
f̂1x  f1x cos   f1y sin 
f̂ 2x  f 2x cos   f 2y sin 
 f 1x 
f 
f̂1x  C S 0 0   1y 
    
f̂ 2x   0 0 C S  f 2x 
f 2y 
 
 f̂    T*  f 
Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 41
  f̂    k̂  d̂ 
 d̂    T   d 
*

 f̂    k̂   T   d 
*

We must invert

 f̂    T   f 
* [T*]

 T   f    k̂   T  d 
* *

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 42

Expand local d, f , and k

 d̂ 1x   C S 0 0   d 1x 
    d 
d̂ 1y    S C 0 0   1y 
   
d̂ 2x   0 0 C S  d 2x 
d̂ 2y   0 0  S C d 2y 
   
 d̂   T  d
 f̂    T  f 
Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 43
  C S 0 0
 S C 0 0 
 T   
 0 0 C S
 
 0 0  S C

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 44

Expand local [k] to 4x4 size:

 f̂1x  1 0  1 0  d 1x 
    d 
f̂1y  AE  0 0 0 0  1y 
   
f̂
 2x  L  1 0 1 0  d 2 x 
f̂ 2y   
   0 0 0 0 d 2y 

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 45

Expanded form:

 T   f    k̂   T   d 
 f    T   k̂   T   d 
1

 T   T
1 T

 f    T   k̂   T   d 
T Remember:
f=kd

 k    T   k̂   T 
T

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 46

[k] in explicit form:
 C2 CS  C 2
 CS 
 2 2 
AE  CS S  CS  S 
 k   2 2 
L C  CS C CS
 2 2

  CS  S CS S 

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 47

EXAMPLE

y A=2 in2
E=30 x 106 psi
L=60 in
x̂

30o

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements x 48

  C2 CS  C 2  CS 
 
AE  CS S 2
 CS  S 2 
 k   
L   C 2  CS C 2 CS 
 
  CS  S 2 CS S 2 
  30 o
3
C
2
1
S
2
Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 49
  3 3 3 3
   
 4 4 4 4 
 3 1 3 1 
( 2)( 30x10 6 )  4   
 k   3
4 4 4

60 3 3 3 
  
 4 4 4 4 
 3 1 3 1 
  
 4 4 4 4 

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 50

 0.75 0.433  0.75  0.433
 0. 25  0 .433  0.25 
 k   10 6  
 0.75 0.433 
 
 symmetric 0.25 

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 51

 Stress Computation

f̂1x  AE  1  1 d̂ 1x 
     
f̂ 2x  L   1 1  d̂ 2x 
y
x̂

L 2
f̂ 2x

f̂1x x
1
Stress Computation (cont. …)
f̂ 2x

A

AE d̂ 1x 
f̂ 2x    1 1  
L d̂ 2x 

f̂ 2x 1  AE d̂ 1x   E d̂ 1x 
 

  1 1   

   1 1  
A A L d̂ 2x   L d̂ 2x 

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 53

Stress Computation (cont. …)
E  dˆ1 x 
    1 1  
L d ˆ
 2x 
ˆ  
d   T  d
*

E
    1 1  T   d 
*

L
   C   d 
Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 54
Stress Computation (cont. …)

   C  d
E C S 0 0 
 C    1 1  
L  0 0 C S
E
 C     C  S C S 
L

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 55

Example
A = 4 x 10-4 m2
x̂
E = 210 GPa
y
 = 60o
d1x = 0.25 mm
2 d1y = 0.0 mm
d2x = 0.50 mm
d2y = 0.75 mm
60o
x
1
Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 56
Stress Computation

210 x 10 6 kN / m  1 3 1 3
 C    
2m  2 2 2 2 
 d 1x  0.25 x 10  3 m 
d   
 1y   0.0 m 
 d      3 
d
 2x  0.50 x 10 m 
d 2y  0.75 x 10  3 m 
   

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 57

Stress Computation
0.25 x 10  3 m 
 
210 x 10 6  1 3 1 3  0.0 m 
     3 
2  2 2 2 2  0.50 x 10 m 
0.75 x 10  3 m 
 
  81.32 x 10 3 kN / mm 2
  81.32 MPa

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 58

3-Bar Truss Example

2 3

1 2
10 ft

45o

1 45o 3 4

10 ft

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 59

 Data for 3-Bar Truss Example

E = 30 x 106 psi for all members

Element Node i Node j L (ft) A (in2) q C S C2 S2 CS

1 1 2 10.00 2 90 0 1 0 1 0
2 1 3 10.00 2 45 0.7071 0.7071 0.5 0.5 0.5
3 1 4 14.14 2 0 1 0 1 0 0

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 60

 0 0 0 0
0 1 
 
6 0  1
(1) ( 30 x 10 ) ( 2) 
k 
(10) (12) 0 0 0 0
 
0  1 0 1

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 61

  0.5 0.5  0.5  0.5
 0.5 
 
6 0.5  0.5  0.5
( 2) ( 30 x 10 ) ( 2) 

k
 
 10 2  12  0.5  0.5 0.5 0.5 
 
  0.5  0.5 0.5 0.5 

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 62

 1 0 1 0
0 
 
6 0 0 0
( 3) ( 30 x 10 ) ( 2) 
k 
(10) (12)   1 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 0

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 63

 k (1) (1)
k 12 (1)
k 13 (1)
k 14 0 0 0 0
 11 
k (21
1)
k (22
1)
k (23
1)
k (24
1)
0 0 0 0
 (1) 
k 31 k (32
1)
k (33
1)
k (34
1)
0 0 0 0
 (1) (1) (1) (1) 
 K   k 41 k 42 k 43 k 44 0 0 0 0  
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 64

 k ( 2 ) ( 2)
k 12 ( 2)
0 0 k 13 ( 2)
k 14 0 0
 11 
k (21
2)
k (22
2)
0 0 k (23
2)
k (24
2)
0 0
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
  ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2)  
k 31 k 32 0 0 k 33 k 34 0 0
 ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) 
k 41 k 42 0 0 k 43 k 44 0 0
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 65

 k ( 3 ) ( 3)
k 12 0 0 0 0 ( 3)
k 13 ( 3) 
k 14
 11 
k (21
3) ( 3)
k 22 0 0 0 0 ( 3)
k 23 ( 3) 
k 24
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 ( 3) ( 3) 
k 31 k (32
3)
0 0 0 0 k (33
3)
k 34 
 ( 3) ( 3) 
k 41 k (42
3)
0 0 0 0 k (43
3)
k 44 

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 66

  1.354 0.354 0 0  0.354  0.354  1 0
 0.354 1.354 0  1  0.354  0.354 0 0

 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
 K   (500000) 

 0.354  0.354 0 0 0.354 0.354 0 0
 
  0.354  0.354 0 0 0.354 0.354 0 0
 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 67

Point to Ponder
Why are rows and columns 3 & 8 equal
to zero?
x-displacement at node 2 is 3rd d-o-f and
y-displacement at node 4 is 8th d-o-f.
These displacements must be zero
because of geometry (not B.C.)

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 68

Assembling the Global
Stiffness Matrix - [K]

If there are 2 degrees of freedom and element ei

connects nodes i & j then the Global [K] matrix is
assembled as follows:

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 69

 Position in local [k] adds to Position in Global [K]

Upper Left Quadrant:

row m 2i-1 if m=1
2i if m=2
column n 2i-1 if n=1
2i if n=2

Upper Right Quadrant:

row m 2i-1 if m=1
2i if m=2
column n 2j-1 if n=3
2j if n=4

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 70

Position in local [k] adds to Position in Global [K]

Lower Left Quadrant:

row m 2j-1 if m=3
2j if m=4
column n 2i-1 if n=1
2i if n=2

Lower Right Quadrant:

row m 2j-1 if m=3
2j if m=4
column n 2j-1 if n=3
2j if n=4

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 71

 Position in local [k] adds to Position in Global [K]
row m column n row column
1 1 2i-1 2i-1
1 2 2i-1 2i
1 3 2i-1 2j-1
1 4 2i-1 2j
2 1 2i 2i-1
2 2 2i 2i
2 3 2i 2j-1
2 4 2i 2j
3 1 2j-1 2i-1
3 2 2j-1 2i
3 3 2j-1 2j-1
3 4 2j-1 2j
4 1 2j 2i-1
4 2 2j 2i
4 3 2j 2j-1
4 4 2j 2j

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 72

 Suppose i=1 and j= 3
Position in local [k] adds to Position in Global [K]
row m column n row column
1 1 1 1
1 2 1 2
1 3 1 5
1 4 1 6
2 1 2 1
2 2 2 2
2 3 2 5
2 4 2 6
3 1 5 1
3 2 5 2
3 3 5 5
3 4 5 6
4 1 6 1
4 2 6 2
4 3 6 5
4 4 6 6
Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 73
 k ( 2 ) ( 2)
k 12 0 0 ( 2)
k 13 ( 2)
k 14 0 0
 11 
k (21
2) ( 2)
k 22 0 0 ( 2)
k 23 ( 2)
k 24 0 0
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) 
k 31 k 32 0 0 k 33 k 34 0 0
 ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) 
k
 41 k 42 0 0 k 43 k 44 0 0
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 74

If there are 3 d-o-f per node (3D truss):
Position in local [k] adds to Position in Global [K]
Upper Left Quadrant:
row m 3i-2 if m=1
3i-1 if m =2
3i if m =3
column n 3i-2 if n=1
3i-1 if n =2
3i if n =3
Upper Right Quadrant:
row m 3i-2 if m=4
3i-1 if m =5
3i if m =6
column n 3j-2 if n=1
3j-1 if n =2
3j if n =3
Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 75
If there are 3 d-o-f per node (3D truss):
Position in local [k] adds to Position in Global [K]
Lower Left Quadrant:
row m 3j-2 if m=4
3j-1 if m =5
3j if m =6
column n 3i-2 if n=1
3i-1 if n =2
3i if n =3
Lower Left Quadrant:
row m 3j-2 if m=4
3j-1 if m =5
3j if m =6
column n 3j-2 if n=4
3j-1 if n =5
3j if n =6
Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 76
 Position in local [k] adds to Position in Global [K]
row m column n row column
1 1 3i-2 3i-2
1 2 3i-2 3i-1
1 3 3i-2 3i
1 4 3i-2 3j-2
1 5 3i-2 3j-1
1 6 3i-2 3j
2 1 3i-1 3i-2
2 2 3i-1 3i-1
2 3 3i-1 3i
2 4 3i-1 3j-2
2 5 3i-1 3j-1
2 6 3i-1 3j
3 1 3i 3i-2
3 2 3i 3i-1
3 3 3i 3i
3 4 3i 3j-2
3 5 3i 3j-1
3 6 3i 3j
Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 77
 Position in local [k] adds to Position in Global [K]
row m column n row column
4 1 3j-2 3i-2
4 2 3j-2 3i-1
4 3 3j-2 3i
4 4 3j-2 3j-2
4 5 3j-2 3j-1
4 6 3j-2 3j
5 1 3j-1 3i-2
5 2 3j-1 3i-1
5 3 3j-1 3i
5 4 3j-1 3j-2
5 5 3j-1 3j-1
5 6 3j-1 3j
6 1 3j 3i-2
6 2 3j 3i-1
6 3 3j 3i
6 4 3j 3j-2
6 5 3j 3j-1
6 6 3j 3j
Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 78
  1.354 0.354 0 0  0.354  0.354  1 0
 0.354 1.354 0  1  0.354  0.354 0 0

 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
 K   (500000) 

 0.354  0.354 0 0 0.354 0.354 0 0
 
  0.354  0.354 0 0 0.354 0.354 0 0
 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 79

  0   d 1x 
 10000 d 
   1y 
 F2x   0 
   
 F2y   0 
 F     d   
F
 3x   0 
 F3y   0 
   
 F4x   0 
 F4y   0 
   

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 80

 0  1.354 0.354 d 1x 
   (500000)    
 10000 0.354 1.354  d 1y 

d 1x   0.414 x 10  2 in 
   2 
d
 1y   1.59 x 10 in 

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 81

  0.414 x 10  2 
6   2 
 (1) 
30 x 10
 0  1 0 1  1.59 x 10 
120  0 
 0 
 
 0.414 x 10  2 
6   
30 x 10  2  2 2 
2  1.59 x 10  2
 ( 2)    
120  2 2 2 2  0 
 0 
 
 0.414 x 10  2 
6   2 
( 3)
 
30 x 10
  1 0 1 0  1.59 x 10 
120  0 
 0 
 
Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 82
 (1)
  3965 psi
( 2)
  1471 psi
( 3)
  1035 psi

Gasal 2009 Truss Elements 83