Early discoveries of brain

function and localisation

Dr. Paul Dockree, History of Psychology: PS1203, 2009

What is neuropsychology?
In any well-made machine one is ignorant of most of the parts
the better they work the less we are conscious of themit is
only fault that draws attention to the existence of a
mechanism at all. (Craik, K., 1943)
TV set analogy:
Faulty TV sets:-no sound but intact picture
-no picture but intact sound
-picture without colour (ie black & white pic)
-colour without picture?

What is neuropsychology?
The experimental neuropsychologist asks,
What pattern of behavioural dysfunction
occurs when a particular brain region is
damaged or lesioned?

The clinical neuropsychologist asks, How can

normal function be restored or compensated
for in the brain?

Science-Practitioner Model

 How did the field evolve?

John Hughlings Jacksons (1835-1911)

first credible human localisationist view

evidence from epileptic patients.

How did the field evolve?

Brocas Aphasia
In 1862, showing brain lesions in a stroke patient who
could understand language but could not speak (could
only say "tan"), he demonstrated that the left frontal
lobe was responsible for articulation of speech.

How did the field evolve?

Wernickes Aphasia
Like Broca, Wernicke investigated a similar stroke victim.
But this time the patient could speak but made no sense.
The damaged area was around where the temporal and
parietal lobes meet in the posterior part of the left
hemisphere. His findings further revived the
localisationist view.

Wernickes aphasics show deficits in language

comprehension but intact articulation

How did the field evolve?

Speech content of a Brocas and

Wernickes aphasic

To mean: "The dog needs to go out so I will

take him for a walk.

a Wernickes aphasic patient says:

You know that smoodle pinkered and that I
want to get him round and take care of him like
you want before.
an Brocas aphasic patient says:
Walk dog.

The logic of lesion analysis

Area A: Brocas area
Function X: speech articulation Area B: Wernickes area
Function Y: speech
Brain
Structures to be Lesioned
comprehension
function

Function X
Speech
articulation
Function Y
Speech
comprehensi
on

Area A

Area B

Brocas area

Wernickes
area

Impairment
Cant speak
fluently
No Impairment
Understanding
speech of
others

No Impairment
In fluent speech
Impairment
Cant
understanding
speech of others

The logic of lesion analysis

Function X: speech articulation Area A: Brocas area
Function Y: speech
Area B: Wernickes area
comprehension
Brain
Structures to be Lesioned
function

Function X
Speech
articulation
Function Y
Speech
comprehensi
on

Area A

Area B

Brocas area

Wernickes
area

Impairment
Cant speak
fluently
No Impairment
Understanding
speech of
others

No Impairment
In fluent speech
Impairment
Cant
understanding
speech of others

The logic of lesion analysis

Function X (articulation of speech)

depends on area A (Brocas area) but not
area B,

whereas function Y (comprehending

speech) depends on area B (Wernickes
area) but not area A.

Double dissociation Gold standard of

neuropsychological research

How did the field evolve?

Wilder Penfield
Growing evidence for localisationist view in early
20th century direct evidence from motor and
sensory maps in the brain from early work of
Wilder Penfield.

Features drawn according to how much brain

space they take up in somatosensory cortex.

How did the field evolve?

Wilder Penfield

Stimulating the temporal lobes could he elicit

meaningful, integrated responses. Physical basis
for memory: an "engram.

How did the field evolve?

Holistic approach:
Karl Lashley (1935) lesions made

throughout the brain do not necessary

create problems when learning a new task
(e.g., maze learning in rats).

A lesioned brain is like a new system, not an

old system with one part missing.

How did the field evolve?

Localisation vs holistic:
A Compromise-

Complex functions (e.g., perception, memory,

reasoning) cannot be accomplished by a single

brain process or brain region; integration of
functional neuroanatomy holistic view

Nevertheless, the simple processes themselves

that are recruited to exercise complex
functions are localised localisation view

Brain damage may reveal something about the

underlying organisation of the system.

 What are the methods used in neuropsychology?

Psychometric testing:
database of standardised scores
Clinical patients vs. healthy controls
Clinical observation:
Diagnosis
Assessment
Rehabilitation
Neuroanatomy:
Connectional studies in animal studies
projection maps (e.g., LGN to visual cortex)

What are the methods used in neuropsychology?

Lesion analysis:
selection of animals or humans with

discrete brain damage to areas thought to

be essential in a particular processing chain.

one of the oldest methods for studying

brain function in humans and animals.

single most informative technique available

for understanding the neural bases of

behaviour.
http://www.wwnorton.com/college/psych/psy
chsci2/content/activities/ch04a.asp#movie

What are the methods used in neuropsychology?

Types of lesions:
cerebrovascular accidents (CVA; stroke); occurs
when blood flow to the brain is disrupted;

What are the methods used in neuropsychology?

Types of lesions:
penetrating head injuries, from gunshot or other
incidents;

What are the methods used in neuropsychology?

Types of lesions:
Following traumatic brain injury (TBI), diffuse white matter damage typically
co-occurs with more focal lesions or hematomas (blood clots) and contusions
(bruising) damaging the dense collections of cell bodies (grey matter)

What are the methods used in neuropsychology?

Types of lesions:
Neurodegeneration: widespread area of
tissue death or abnormal cell functioning
due to neuropathology (AD, PD);
healthy older
person

Pt with AD

What are the methods used in neuropsychology?

Deliberate lesions - on experimental animals.

tissue excision, where tissue is deliberately
removed (usually by aspiration);

tissue destruction, tissue is destroyed

electrolytically or chemically (e.g., MPTP, a

chemical agent to create an animal model of
Parkinsons disease);

What are the methods used in neuropsychology?

tissue deactivation, where tissue is

reversibly deactivated via injections of

local anaesthetic or through chemical
cooling;

tissue disconnection, where brain areas are

left intact but fibre tracts which
communicate between these areas are
permanently cut or temporarily interrupted
(by anaesthetic or cooling);

What are the methods used in neuropsychology?

Neurosurgery is often conducted on humans

in order to relieve conditions such as drugresistant epilepsy (patient H.M.), relief from
intractable pain or brain tumours.

Laterality

The Wada test: sodium amytal

technique
Sodium amytal is injected into
one hemisphere at a time
The effect is to shut down any
language and/or memory
function in that hemisphere in
order to evaluate the other
hemisphere ("half of the brain").
Then the patient is engaged in
a series of language and
memory related tests

Neurorehabilitation

Broca and aphasia therapy (1865)

Broca concluded that the patient,
could recognize a word as one would a face or
landscape, the details of which had never been
analysed
it deosn't mttaer waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are,
the olny iprmoetnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat
ltteres are at the rghit pclae. The rset can be a tatol
mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit a porbelm. Tihs
is bcuseae we do not raed ervey lteter by it slef but
the wrod as a wlohe.

Neurorehabilitation

WW1- German rehabilitation

(Popplereuter, Goldstein)

Cologne and Frankfurt centres

WWII Alexandra Luria:

theoretical perspective from

which to predict recovery
Restoration of function via:
De-inhibition
Transfer to opposite

hemisphere
Reorganisation of the system

Luria stressed the

importance of premorbid
personality and motivation

Is there any point to lesion

analyses now?
A reading of the last fifteen years of the functional
imaging literature - imaging literature largely
concerned with the high-tech confirmation of the
preceding one hundred and fifty years of careful
neuropsychological analysis.

PET and fMRI studies do not provide a definitive

conclusion about whether or not a particular area is

absolutely required in a processing chain.

The only way to definitively decide if function X is

dependent on area A is to remove that area from the

processing chain.

Is there any point to lesion

analyses now?
Lesion analysis complements functional imaging by identifying

necessary and contributing components of the processing chain;

functional imaging also allows the identification of specific
components of the processing chain.

Overall one strategy complements and underlines the other.

nb: All of the above techniques require that you get the

psychology right - if you do not have a good functional theory,

applying technology will not get you a meaningful answer.

Further understanding of lesions and their functional role is key for

targeted rehabilitation of function and the guided recovery of
patients.