Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Outline
Introduction
Basic principles
Manual Vision Inspection
Human Vision
Common Inspection applications
Equipment
Introduction
Introduction
Visual inspection is the most basic and most
commonly employed NDT method.
It is applicable to a wide variety of material types and
product forms.
Several characteristics about the part being examined
may be determined, which include dimensional
conformance, the presence of discontinuities, general
fit and wear, and simple cosmetic compliance.
It can be performed by direct or indirect methods
during various stages of manufacturing or after the
component has been placed in-service.
Introduction
The quality of an inspection are affected primarily by
four factors.
The quality of the detector (eye or camera).
The lighting conditions.
The capability to process the visual data.
The level of training and attention to detail.
Introduction
Basic Principles
The Human Eye
Basic Principles
The Human Eye
The retina is a mosaic of two basic types of photoreceptors, rods and cones.
Rods are sensitive to blue-green light and are used for vision under dark or dim conditions.
Cones operate only in relatively bright light, but they provide us with our sharpest images
and enable us to see colors. There are three types of cones
L-cones are red absorbing cones or those that absorb best at the relatively long wavelengths
peaking at 565 nm
M-cones are green absorbing cones with a peak absorption at 535 nm
S-cones are blue absorbing cones with a peak absorption at 440 nm.
b
X/2
X
n
2
180,000
Cones
1 mm
b
1 mm
Basic Principles
Contrast Sensitivity
Contrast sensitivity is a measure of how faded or
washed out an object can be before it becomes
indistinguishable from a uniform field
It has been experimentally determined that the
minimum discernible difference in gray scale level
that the eye can detect is about 2% of full brightness
Contrast sensitivity varies with
the size or spatial frequency
of a feature
The lighting conditions
Whether the object is lighter
or darker than the background
The graph to the right plots the
visibility of a spot as a function of the
above variables
Basic Principles
Contrast Sensitivity
It should be noted, however, that
larger objects are not always
easier to see than smaller objects
as contrast is reduced.
In this image:
The luminance of pixels is varied
sinusoidally in the horizontal
direction. The spatial frequency
increases exponentially from
left to right.
The contrast also varies
logarithmically from 100% at the
bottom to about 0.5% at the top.
The luminance of peaks and
troughs remains constant along
a given horizontal path through the image.
Basic Principles
Light Intensity Measurement
Effective visual inspection requires adequate
lighting.
The type of inspection will dictate the lighting
requirements. Inspection of components with
fine detail and low contrast will require greater
illumination than components with large details
and high contrast.
Light intensity may be measured with a suitable
light meter. The unit of measure for white light is
foot-candles (fc).
A foot-candle is equal to the amount of direct light
thrown by one standard candle at a distance of 1
foot.
Basic Principles
Light Directionality
The directionality of the
light is a very important
consideration.
For some applications,
flat, even lighting
works well.
For other applications,
directional lighting is
better because it
produces shadows that
are larger than the
actual flaw and easier
to detect.
Basic Principles
Optical Illusions
Sometime the eye/mind has trouble correctly processing
visual information.
Basic Principles
For best results the inspector or
machine vision operator must have:
A basic knowledge of material processing,
forming, machining and joining processes.
A general understanding of design features,
application and service requirements.
Specific instructions on what to look for and
specific accept/reject criteria.
Inspection Applications
Applications for visual inspection and many and range
from looking a product over for obvious defect to
performing detailed inspections. Some of the common
applications include:
Detection of surface anomalies such as scratches,
excess surface roughness, and areas void of paint
or plating.
Crack, porosity, corrosion or other flaw detection.
Dimensional conformance.
Precision measurements.
Foreign object detection.
Component location.
Inspection Applications
Flaw Detection
Visual inspection of
manufactured materials
and components is a
cost effective means of
identifying flaws.
Visual inspection of a
casting reveals a crack
between a threaded
opening and a pressed
fit.
The aluminum sand
casting has hot tears
and shrinkage at the
transition zones.
Inspection Applications
Flaw Detection
In-service inspections of
existing components and
structures is commonly
accomplished visually.
In this example, visual
inspection of a fire escape
reveals a failure in a
handrail tube.
The failure is in the tube
seam and is likely the
result of ice expansion.
Inspection Applications
Flaw Detection
Normal inspection practices
for highway bridges rely
almost entirely on visual
inspection to evaluate the
condition of the bridges.
Inspection Applications
Flaw Detection
Over 80 percent of all aircraft
inspections are performed
visually.
Inspection Applications
Flaw Detection
Weld quality requirements
are commonly determined
through visual inspection.
Many standards have
established acceptance
criteria for welds.
Transverse weld crack
Dimensional Conformance
Visual inspection is commonly employed for
general dimensional conformance, assembly
fit, and alignment between components.
Common applications include determining:
Weld size and tolerance.
Component dimensions.
Material alignment and allowable distortion.
Dimensional Conformance
Welds are commonly inspected for dimensional tolerance.
There are several types of gages used to inspect welding fit up and
finished weldments.
These gages are intended for general inspection where close
tolerances are not required.
The gage used is determined by the application.
Palmgren gage
Fillet gage set
VWAC gage
Cambridge gage
Dimensional Conformance
Visual inspection is commonly used to determine weld size and
tolerances according to standards and engineering specifications.
Throat measurement
Leg size determination
using a Palmgren gage. with fillet gage.
Convexity measurement
with VWAC gage.
Dimensional Conformance
Undercut in a weld is readily seen visually. In many cases its
depth must be measured to determine if it exceeds code
requirements.
Measurement of undercut
depth with VWAC gage.
Dimensional Conformance
Component finish dimensions are checked with the use of
measurement devices, such as transferring gages and
precision measurement gages.
Dimensional Conformance
Alignment/Distortion
Visual inspection frequently involves
checking materials and components for fit
and alignment.
Many standards establish allowable
tolerances for fit and distortion.
Structural fabrication requires dimensional
inspection of finished components prior to
shipment to the field site.
Basic tools are used for the inspection. An
inspector will set up string lines at known
distances and plum them using a tape
measure. Measurements are then taken at
various locations and compared to code
requirements.
In this image a
fabricated girder is
being inspected for
distortion, sweep
and web flatness.
Equipment
Visual inspection equipment includes a variety of
different tools. These may range from basic rulers,
tape measures and spring type calipers to rigid or
flexible borescopes and remote crawlers with
cameras.
Many tools have been designed for specific
applications such as the various weld gauges.
Some of the specialized tools such as crawlers have
been designed to satisfy the inspection needs in
applications where conventional techniques are not
feasible.
Equipment
Precision Measurements
Sliding calipers are a
precision refinement of the
common rule, which results
in greater accuracy of
measurements.
They may incorporate either
a dial indicator or digital
readout.
Sliding-type calipers are
commonly used to check
dimensional tolerances of
machined components, wear
on components, and fit
between components.
Equipment
Precision Measurements
Micrometers are precise
measurement instruments
used to make accurate direct
readings in contact
measurements.
Micrometers are designed for
inside, outside, and depth
measurements, and are
available in a wide variety of
shapes and sizes.
Micrometers may be either
thousandth inch (.001) or ten
thousandth inch (.0001)
measurement capable.
Equipment
Precision Measurements
Equipment
Precision Measurements
Equipment
Precision Measurements
Example:
One major division on the sleeve is
visible, representing one tenth of an inch.
Two minor divisions are visible, which
each represent an additional 25
thousandths.
Line 15 on the thimble coincides with the
reading line on the sleeve indicating that
fifteen one thousandths of an inch
should be added to the measurement.
By adding all three values, the
micrometer reading is obtained.
0.100
(2 X 0.025) 0.050
(15 X .001) 0.015
0.165
Equipment
Precision Measurements
Reading the ten thousandths micrometer.
Example:
The second major divisions (line 2) on the
sleeve is visible (2 x 0.100 = 0.200)
Three minor divisions after line 2 are visible
(3 X 0.025 = 0.075)
The beveled edge of the thimble is between
0 and 1 (0 x 0.001 = 0)
The vernier scale has the sixth line on the
sleeve perfectly lined up with one of the
marks on the thimble ( 6 x 0.0001 = 0.0006)
The micrometer reading is: 0.2756
0.200
0.075
0.000
0.0006
0.2756
Optical Aids
Mirrors are valuable aids in visual
inspection, they allow the inspection
of threaded and bored holes, inside
surfaces of pipes and fittings, as well
as many others.
Magnifiers assist the visual inspector
by enlarging the size of the object
being examined.
Comparators are a magnifier with a
measuring capability. The
comparator has interchangeable
reticles which provide
measurements for threads, angles,
linear measurement, diameters and
radii.
Optical Aids
Borescopes are visual aids used for the inspection of internal
surface areas.
They are designed for remote viewing in difficult to reach
areas such as jet engines, cylinders, tanks, and various
enclosed chambers.
Borescopes are available in many different diameters and
lengths, and are classified as rigid or flexible.
Clean Surface
Corrosion Damage
Optical Aids
Advances in technology has allowed video equipment
to be adapted to portable and robotic devices.
Portable video probes allow inspectors to remotely
perform examinations in closed chambers which are
inaccessible by convention inspection means.
Robotics have been developed whereby cameras can
be affixed to crawlers and submersibles.
Retrieval tools can be affixed to robotics to remove
foreign objects.
Glossary of Terms
Corrosion: The deterioration of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction with its environment.