Z Transform Primer

Basic Concepts
Consider a sequence of values: {xk : k = 0,1,2,... }
These may be samples of a function x(t), sampled at
instants t = kT; thus xk = x(kT).
The Z transform is simply a polynomial in z having the xk
as coefficients:

X ( z ) Z xk xk z k
k 0

Fundamental Functions
Define the impulse function: {k} = {1, 0, 0, 0,....}

( z ) Z k 1
Define the unit step function: {uk} = {1, 1, 1, 1,....}

U z Z uk z
k 0

1
z

1
1 z
z 1
(Convergent for |z| < 1)

Delay/Shift Property
Let y(t) = x(t-T) (delayed by T and truncated at t = T)
yk = y(kT) = x(kT-T) = x((k-1)T) = xk-1 ; y0 = 0

Y ( z ) Z yk yk z

k 1

xk 1 z k
k 1

Let j = k-1 ; k = j + 1

Y ( z) x j z
j 0

j 1

j
1
x
z

z
X ( z)
j
j 0

The values in the sequence, the coefficients of the polynomial, slide one position to the right, shifting in a zero.

The Laplace Connection

Consider the Laplace Transforms of x(t) and y(t):

Y s L y t L x t T e

Ts

X s

Equate the transform domain delay operators:

Ts

z e

Ts

Examine s-plane to z-plane mapping . . .

S-Plane to Z-Plane Mapping

z e

Ts

Anything in the Alias/Overlay region in the S-Plane will be overlaid on the Z-Plane
along with the contents of the strip between +/- j/T. In order to avoid aliasing, there
must be nothing in this region, i.e. there must be no signals present with radian
frequencies higher than /T, or cyclic frequencies higher than f = 1/2T. Stated
another way, the sampling frequency must be at least twice the highest frequency
present (Nyquist rate).

Mapping Poles and Zeros

A point in the Z-plane rejwill map to a point in the Splane according to:

ln r
Re s
T

Im s
T

Conjugate roots will generate a real valued

polynomial in s of the form:

s 2 2 n s n2

ln r
n
1

ln r

nT

Example 1: Running Average Algorithm

xk xk 1 xk 2 xk 3
yk
4

(Non-Recursive)

1 z 1 z 2 z 3
z3 z2 z 1
Y z X z
X z
4
4z 4

Block Diagram

Z Transform

Transfer Function

Y
z3 z2 z 1
z
X
4z 4

Note: Each [Z-1] block can be thought of as a

memory cell, storing the previously applied value.

Example 2: Trapezoidal Integrator

T
y k y k 1 xk xk 1
2

(Recursive)

T
Y z z Y z X z z X z
2
1

Z Transform

1 z 1 T
z 1 T
Y z X z
X z
1
2
1

z
2
z

Block Diagram

Transfer Function

Y z T z 1

X z 2 z 1

Ex. 2 (cont)

Block Diagram Manipulation

Intuitive Structure

Equivalent Structure

Explicit representation of
xk-1 and yk-1 has been lost,
but memory element
usage has been reduced
from two to one.

Ex. 2 (cont) More Block Diagram

Manipulation

Y z T z 1

X z 2 z 1

Note that the final form is equivalent to a rectangular

integrator with an additive forward path. In a PI
compensator, this path can be absorbed by the
proportional term, so there is no advantage to be gained
by implementing a trapezoidal integrator.