Honors General

Chemistry 1
Braxton McKinney
Lecture 4

The Greenhouse Effect

The
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere:

Allow sunlight to enter the atmosphere.

Warm earths surface.
Prevent some heat generated by the sunlight from escaping.
The balance between incoming and outgoing energy from the sun determines Earths average
temperature.

Global Warming
Scientists have measured an average 0.7 degree celcius rise in atmospheric temperature since
1860.
During the same period atmospheric levels have risen 38%
One source of is combustion reactions of fossil fuels we use to get energy, another is volcanic
action.

Quantities in Chemical Reactions

The study of the numerical relationship between chemical
quantities in a chemical reaction is called stoichiometry.

Reaction Stoichiometry
The coefficients in a chemical reaction specify the relative
amounts in moles of each of the substances involved in the
reaction.

Mole-to-mole Conversions
Suppose we burn 22.0 moles of ; how many moles of form?
2+25

16+18

Stoichiometric ratio: 2 moles : 16 moles

22.0 moles X = 176 moles

Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, Percent

Yield
Pizza Recipe:
1 Crust + 5 oz Toma 10 to sauce + 2 cups cheese = 1 pizza
If we have 4 crusts, cups of cheese, and 15 oz tomato sauce, how
many pizzas can we make?
We have enough crusts to make 4 crusts X = 4 pizzas
We have enough cheese to make 10 cups cheese X = 5 pizzas
We have enough sauce to make 15 oz sauce X = 3 pizzas

Limiting
Reactant

Smallest
number of
pizzas

Theoretical Yield
The tomato sauce is the limiting reactant, the reactant that makes
the least amount of product. It is also known as the limiting
reagent.
The maximum number of pizzas we can make depends on this
ingredient. In chemical reactions, we call this theorietical yield.

Percent Yield
Assume while making pizzas, we burnt one or dropped one on the
floor, some incontrollable variable that only allows us to make two
pizza. The actual amount (two pizzas) of product made in a
chemical reaction is called the actual yield.
If we take our actual yield, and divide it by our theoretical yield.
We get our percent yield or what we were able to make versus
what we were supposed to be able to make.

In a Chemical Reaction
When you have multiple reactants, odds are one reactant will be
completely used before the others. When this happens the
reaction stops and no more product is made.
The reactant that limits the amount of product is called the
limiting reactant.
Those reactants that arent completely used are call excess
reactants.
The amount of product that can be made from the limiting
reactant is called the theoretical yield.

Calculating Limiting Reactant, Theoretical

Yield, and Percent Yield
Recall
our equation for the combustion of methane:

+
+
Our balanced equation for the combustion of methane implies that every
one molecule of reacts with two molecules of .
If we have five molecules of , eight molecules of , which is the limiting
reactant?
First we have to calculate the number of molecules that can be made from five . 5 X
= 5
Then we have to calculate the number of that can be made from eight molecules of .
8 X
= 4.
We have enough to make five molecules and enough to make. four molecules. is
the limiting reactant and is the excess.

Solution Concentration and Solution Solubility

When table salt is mixed with water, it seems to disappear or
become a liquid, the mixture is homogeneous.
Homogeneous mixtures are called solutions.
The majority component is the solvent.
The minority component is the solute.
A solution in which water is the solvent is an aqueous solution.

Solution Concentrations
Because solutions are mixtures, the composition can vary from one sample
to the next.
So to describe the solution accurately, we quantify the amount of solute
relative to solvent, or concentration of solution.
Solutions are often described as dilute concentrated.
Dilute solutions have small amounts of solute compared to solvents.
Concentrated solutions have large amounts of solute compared to solvents.

A common way to express solution concentration is molarity (M).

Molarity is the amount of solute (in moles) divided by the volume of
solution (in liters).

Solution Dilution
Often,

solutions are stored as concentrated stock solutions.

To make solutions of lower concentrations from these stock
solutions, more solvent added.
The concentrations and volumes of stock and new solutions are
inversely proportional:
=

Solution Stoichiometry
Because molarity relates the moles of solute to the liters of
solution, it can be used to convert between amounts of reactants
and/or products in a chemical reaction.

What Happens when a Solute Dissolves?

There are attractive forces between the solute particles holding
them together.
There are also attractive forces between the solute particles and
the solvent molecules.
If the attractions between solute and solvent are strong enough
the solute will dissolve.

Charge Distribution in a Water Molecule

There is an uneven distribution of electrons within the water
molecule.
This causes the oxygen side of the molecule to have a partial negative
charge and the hydrogen side to have a partial positive charge.

Solute and Solvent Interactions in a Sodium Chloride

Solution and Dissolution of Ionic Compounds
When

sodium chloride is put into water, the attraction of and

ions to water molecules competes with the attraction among the
oppositely charged ions themselves.
Dissolution of Ionic Compounds
Each ion is attracted to the surrounding water molecules and is pulled off
and away from the crystal.
When it enters the solution, the ion is surrounded by water molecules,
insulating it from other ions.
The result is a solution with free-moving, charged particles able to conduct
electricity.

Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte Solutions

Materials that dissolve in water to for a solution containing ions will
conduct electricity. These are called electrolytes.
Materials that dissolve in water to form a solution with no ions will not
conduct electricity. These are called nonelectrolytes.
Ionic substances, such as sodium chloride, that completely dissociate
into ions when dissolved in water are called strong electrolytes.
Except for acids, most molecular compounds dissolve in water as intact
molecules, or nonelectrolytes.
Acids ionize to varying degrees in water. Those that completely ionize
are strong acids. Those that dont are weak acids.

Acids
Acids

are molecular compounds that ionize when they dissolve in

water.
The molecules are pulled apart by their attraction for the water.
When acids ionize, they form cations and also anions.

Acids that ionize virtually 100% are called strong acids. For
example, HCL.
Acids that only ionize a small percentage are called weak acids.
For example, HF

Dissociation and Ionization

When

ionic compounds dissolve in water, the anions and cations

are separated from each other. This is called dissociation.
When polyatomic ions dissociate, the polyatomic group stay
together.
When strong acids dissolve in water, the molecule ionizes into and
anions.

The Solubility of Ionic Compounds

When an ionic compound dissolves in water, the resulting solution
contains not the intact ionic compound itself but its component ions
dissolved in water.
However not all ionic compounds dissolve in water. For example, AgCl
remains solid and appear as a white powder at the bottom of the water.
A compound is termed soluble if it dissolves in water and insoluble if it
does not.
The best way to determine if a salt will dissolve is to conduct an
experiment to test if the compound will dissolve.
This is known as the empirical method.

Solubility Rules
Components containing the following ions
are generally soluble:

Exceptions

,,

None

None

When they are paired with , , or the

resulting compounds are insoluble.
When paired with , , , , the resulting
compounds are insoluble.

Components containing the following ions

are general insoluble.

Exceptions

and

When paired with , , , , , the resulting

compounds are soluble.

and

When paired with , , the resulting

Precipitation Reactions
Precipitation reactions are reactions in which a solid forms when
we mix two solutions.
Precipitation reactions do not always occur when two aqueous
solutions are mixed.
Nothing happens when combining solutions of Kl and NaCl.

Predicting Precipitation Reactions

1. Determine what ions each aqueous reactant has.
2. Determine formulas of possible products.
1. Balance charges of combined ions to get the formula of each product.

3. Determine solubility of each product in water.

1. Use solubility rules.

4. If neither product will precipitate, write no reaction after the arrow.

5. If any of the possible products are insoluble, write their formulas as the
products of the reaction using (s) for solid, (g) for gas, (l) for liquid, and (aq) for
aqueous.
6. Balance the equation.

Rules for Writing a Complete Ionic Equation

Aqueous strong electrolytes are written as ions.
Insoluble substances, weak electrolytes, and nonelectrolytes are written
in molecule form.
Ionic Equation
Notice in some ionic equations some ions appear unchanged on both sides.
These are called spectator ions because they do not participate in the reaction
(soluble salts, strong acids, strong bases).
An ionic equation in which the spectator ions are removed is called a net ionic
equation.

Acid-Base and Gas-Evolution Reactions

Two important classes of reactions that occur in aqueous solution are:
Acid-base reactions
Gas-evolution reactions

Acid-base reaction:
AKA Neutralization reaction
When an acid and a base, the two neutralize each other producing water (or in some cases a
weak electrolyte).

Gas-evolution reactions:
A gas is produced resulting in a bubble.
The reaction happens when the anion from one reactant combines with the cation of the other.
Many reactions are both gas evolution and acid base reactions.

Acid-Base Reactions
Arrhenius
Definitions

Acid: Substance that produces in aqueous solution.

In solution bonds with water to produce the Hydronium ion
Polyproptic acids contain more than one ionizable proton and release them
sequentially.
The firs ionizable proton is strong while subsequent ionizable protons are
weak.
Base: Substance that produces ions in aqueous solution.
These reactions are called neutralization reactions because the acid aand
base neutralize each others properties.

Common Acids and Bases

Name of Acid

Formula

Name of Base

Formula

Hydrochloric Acid

HCl

Sodium hydroxide

NaOH

Hydrobromic Acid

HBr

Lithium hydroxide

LiOH

Hydroiodic Acid

HI

Potassium hydroxide

KOH

Nitric Acid

Calcium hydroxide

Sulfuric Acid

Barium hydroxide

Perchloric Acid

Ammonia

Formic Acid
Acetic Acid
Hydrofluoric Acid

HF

Acid-Base Titrations
A titration is a laboratory procedure where a substance in a
solution of known concentration (titration) is reacted with another
substance in a solution of unknown concentration (analyte)
The equivalence point is the point in the titration when H+ and
OH- from reactants are in their stoichiometric ratio and are
completely reacted.
An indicator is a dye whose color depends on the acidity or
basicity of solution.

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
The reactions in which electrons are transferred from one reactant
to the other are called oxidation reduction reactions, or redox
reactions.
Many redox reactions involve the reaction of a substance with
oxygen.

Redox Reaction
Electron transfer for the reaction to qualify as oxidation reduction.
There is uneven sharing of electrons when hydrogen bonds to chlorine,
resulting in an increase of electron density 9reduction) for chlorine and
decrease in electron density (oxidation) for hydrogen.
To convert a free element into an ion, the atom must gain or lose
electrons.
Reactions where electrons are transferred from one atom to another are
redox reactions.
Atoms that lose electrons are being oxidized, while atoms that gain
electrons are being reduced.

Oxidation States
Chemists assign a number to each element in a reaction called an
oxidation state that allows them to determine the electron flow in
the reaction.
Even though they look like them oxidation states are not ion
charges!!!

Rules for Assigning Oxidation States

The following are in order of priority.
1. Free elements have an oxidation state = 0
2. Monatomic ions have an oxidation state equal to their charge.
3. The sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms in a compound is 0
4. Group I metals have an oxidation state of +1 in all of their
compounds
5. In their compounds, nonmetals have oxidation states based on
location on periodic tbale.

Identifying Redox Reactions

Oxidation: An increase in oxidation state.
Reduction: A decrease in oxidation state.
The reactant that causes reduction in another reactant is called
the reducing agent.
The reactant that causes oxidation in another reactant is called
the oxidizing agent.

A Big Thanks and Credit Given To:

Luisa Whittaker-Brooks of the University of Utah
Pearson Education