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Desain Studi Epidemiologi Analitik1
Desain Studi Epidemiologi Analitik1
Desain Studi Epidemiologi Analitik1
EPIDEMIOLOGI ANALITIK
APRININGSIH, SKM, MKM
Analytic:
* Observational:
- Case-control
- Cohort
* Experimental: intervention
Study Population
DISEASED
(Cases)
non-DISEASED
(Controls)
Source population
Exposed
Unexposed
Source population
Exposed
Unexposed
Cases
Source population
Exposed
Sample
Unexposed
Controls
Cases
Source population
Exposed
Sample
Cases
Unexposed
Controls =
Sample of the denominator
Representative with
regard to exposure
Controls
Disease
Controls
Retrospective nature
SELECTION OF CASES
FIRST decide on a specific case definition
based on a medically diagnosed condition
Must consider what criteria will confirm the
case definition
lung cancer confirmed by biopsy
osteoporosis confirmed by bone density
measurements
atherosclerosis confirmed by ultrasound
of carotid arteries
SELECTION OF CASES
SECOND will you use INCIDENT or
PREVALENT cases?
Incident
must wait for new cases to occur
study can specifically measure exposure
relating to development of disease
Prevalent...
dont have to wait while cases occur with
time - more practical!
study will specifically measure exposure
relating to survival with disease
SELECTION OF CASES
THIRD be aware of the unique qualities of
certain groups
hospital admissions
nursing homes
screening participants
day care facilities
some groups may have better supporting
medical records
some groups may be more homogenous
and present less confounding variables
SELECTION OF CONTROLS
THE BIG PICTURE
Controls should be representative of the
referent population from which cases are
selected (I.e. comparable)
They dont have to be representative of
the source (I.e. total) population
Controls should have the potential to
become cases (they have to be
susceptible for the disease of interest)
Total Population
Reference
Population
Cases
Control
s
SELECTION OF CONTROLS
Different Types of Controls
randomly selected individuals from
the population like RDD (random digit
dialing)
individuals that live in the same
neighborhoods as cases
SELECTION OF CONTROLS
Different Types of Controls( cont)
best friends of cases
spouses or siblings of cases
individuals at the same hospital with
cases
MEASURING ASSOCIATION
because study participants in Case
Control studies are selected based on
disease status...
case control studies are ideal for the
study of rare diseases
incidence cant be calculated
MEASURING ASSOCIATION
Because incidence cant be
calculated, a relative risk cant be
calculated (RR is a ratio of
INCIDENCE in exposed and nonexposed)
Instead of the RR, an ODDS RATIO
is calculated in case control
19
studies
MEASURING ASSOCIATION
Odds: NOT a proportion, but the ratio of the
# ways an event CAN occur relative to the #
of ways an event CAN NOT occur
Classic 2 x 2 Table
Disease
No Disease
Exposure
No Exposure
d
Controls
Ever Used
Never Used
1,293
2,455
1,707
3,321
Total
3,000
5,776
OR <1
disease
A Special Case...
O.R. R.R.
Referent popn
Total population
SELECTION OF CONTROLS
to avoid potential problems of
confounding some studies use
MATCHING
MATCHING: the process of selecting
controls so that they are similar to
cases on certain specific
characteristics
SELECTION OF CONTROLS
CHARACTERISTICS THAT ARE OFTEN
USED FOR MATCHING
age
gender
body mass index (weight / height2)
smoking status
marital status
SELECTION OF CONTROLS
There are two types of matching
GROUP MATCHING (frequency matching)
based on proportions
Idea is to select a control group with a
certain characteristic identical to
cases in the same proportion as it
appeared in cases
Example: if 25% of cases in your study
smoke you would select a control
population that included 25% smokers
SELECTION OF CONTROLS
There are two types of matching
INDIVIDUAL MATCHING (matched
pairs)
for every individual case a control is
selected who is identical to the
case on certain characteristics
Example: If your first case is a 25 yearold woman who smokes then you
would find a control who is 25, female
and a smoker
case
control
Cohort study is
the gold
standard of
analytical
epidemiology
Introduksi
Disease
The Future
Disease +
populasi
o
sampel
Risk factor
E +
Risk factor
E -
Disease +
Disease 35
contoh :
suatu studi ingin menentukan apakah olah raga
dapat mencegah penyakit jantung koroner (PJK)
kelompok kohort yang diteliti terdiri dari 16.936
(dokter)
variabel exposure: olah raga
olah raga teratur ( E+)
tidak olah raga ( E -)
Follow-up cohort
10 tahun
variabel outcome meninggal karena PJK
hasil :
Insiden pada kelompok E + = 24/10.000 person-year
insiden pada kelompok E - = 16/10.000 person-year
24/10.000
RR = -------------------- = 1.5
16/10.000
36
37
disain :
The Past
The Present
Disease +
sampel
Risk factor
E +
Risk factor
E -
Disease Disease +
Disease -
populasi
39
Langkah-langkah studi :
tentukan kelompok kohort yang akan diteliti
(data dari masa lampau)
kumpulkan data mengenai variabel predictor
atau exposure (data dari masa lampau)
follow-up kelompok kohort
kumpulkan data variabel outcome (data dapat
diperoleh :
dari masa lampau
pada saat penelitian
Kalkulasi :
Insiden D pada kelompok E+
RR= ---------------------------------------------------Insiden D pada kelompok E 40
Contoh :
suatu studi ingin melihat prognosa dari prolaps katup
mitral dengan kelainan tambahan
ditentukan kelompok kohort yang akan diteliti
343 pasien dengan kelainan prolaps katup mitral
( data dari pemeriksaan EKG tahun 1975 dan 1979)
dikumpulkan data menegenai variabel predictor
data dari medical record
variabel predictor berupa kelainan tambahan
pada prolapsus katup mitral (data EKG)
dikumpulkan data mengenai variabel outcome
variabel outcome yang diukur berupa :
mati tiba-tiba
emboli
endokarditis
41
hasil :
10% dari pasien -pasien prolaps mitral
dengan
kelainan tambahan pada katup mitral
meninggal
tiba-tiba 0.7 % dari pasien tanpa kelainan
tambahan
Pada katup mitral meninggal tiba-tiba
Insiden E+
10
RR = -------------------- = ---------- = 14
Insiden E 0.7
Kelemahan :
peneliti tidak dapat mengontrol kualitas data yang
dipakai
43
Nested Case-Control
Merupakan studi kasus kontrol di dalam studi kohort
Studi kasus kontrol yang disarangkan pada studi kohort
Stuktur :
pengukuran variabel predictorpada partisipan
telah dikumpulkan dimasa lampau (kemudian disimpan)
semua partisipan di follow-up
pada akhir penelitian, diukur variabel outcome
kelompok dengan outcome / disease +
kelompok dengan outcome / disease kemudian pada kelompok disease + (case) dan
disease -(control) masing-masing dilihat kembali
nilai dari pengukuran variabel predictor pada masa
lalu
bandingkan exposure pada kedua kelompok kasus
dan kontrol
44
Contoh :
Suatu studi ingin melihat apakah kadar mikronutrien
X dalam darah ada hubungannya dengan kejadian
penyakit kanker
pengambilan sampel darah telah dilakukan 10 tahun
yang lalu pada 1000 orang
pada saat penelitian terdapat 50 penderita kanker, 950
tetap sehat
kemudian dilakukan pemeriksaan terhadap sampel
darah yang telah diambil
dari 50 penderita kanker 25 diantaranya mempunyai
kadar mikronutrien X yang rendah
dari 950 yang sehat, 300 diantaranya mempunyai
kadar mikronutrien X yang rendah
45
Kasus
100
60
Kontrol
300 (Kadar mikronutrien X rendah)
900
600 (Kadar mikronutrien X normal)
40/60
OR = --------------- = 1.3
300/600
interpretasi
Kadar mikronutrien X yang rendah dalam
darah berisiko 1.3 x menimbulkan kanker
dari pada bila kadarnya normal
46
47
Disain :
The Present
The Future
Disease +
Sample
Sampel
Risk factor
E +
Risk factor
E -
Disease Disease +
Disease -
population
48
49
Disain :
The Present
The Future
Disease +
Population
( risk factor +)
Risk factor
E +
sample
Disease Follow-up
sample
Population
( risk factor -)
Disease +
Risk factor
E Disease -
50
Contoh :
suatu studi ingin meneliti apakah para dokter yang
terpapar radiasi mempunyai mortality rate yang tinggi
dilakukan triple cohort study
diidentifikasikan 3 kelompok sampel kohort dengan
keterpaparan exposure yang berbeda-beda
sampel diambil dari 3 populasi dengan keterpaparan
exposure yang berbeda
populasi 1 adalah dokter-dokter dari bagian radiologi
populasi 2 adalah dokter umum
populasi 3 adalah dokter dari bagian opthalmologi
peneliti mencatat
semua status vital dari semua anggota sampel
tahun kematian
peneyebab kematian
hasil : radiologist mempunyai mortality rate yang paling
tinggi dari ketiga kelompok kohort tadi
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52