SURVEYS, LONGITUDINAL,

CROSS-SECTIONAL AND
TREND ANALYSIS
Nurma Aini
Syarifatusnain Maulida W.R
Nazala Wahyu Febrianto

INTRODUCTION
Descriptive Research are concerned with;

While,
Survey gather data at a particular point in
time with intention of describing nature of
existing conditions, or identifying standards
against which existing conditions can be
compared, or determining the relationship
that exist between specific events.

CHARACTERISTICS AND CLAIMED

ATTRACTIONS OF SURVEY

Gather data on a one-shot basis

Represents a wide target population

Generates numerical data

Provide descriptive, inferential, and explanation information

Manipulates key factors and variable

Gathers standardized information

Ascertains information

Present material which is uncluttered by specific contextual

factors

Capture data from multiple choice, closed question, test

score, or observation schedule

Support or refutes hypotheses about the target population

Generate accurate instruments through piloting and

revision

Makes generalization

Gathers data which can be processed statistically

EXAMPLE OF SURVEY
Opinion
polls

Test
scores

Students
preferenc
e fir
particular
courses

Reading
survey

CONT. of INTRO
Survey

can be exploratory or
confirmatory
It can be descriptive or analytical

HOINVILLE AND JOWELLS

STATEMENTS
Three

prerequisites to the design

of any survey are;
1. The specification of the exact
purpose of the inquiry
2. The population on which it is to
focus
3. The resources that are available

DATA-GATHERING TEHNIQUES
Structured

or semi-structured

interviews
Self-completion or postal
questionnaires
Telephone interview
Internet surveys
Standardized test of
attainment/performance
Attitude scales

CONSIDERATIONS IN PLANNING
SURVEY

Problem
definition

Sample
selection

Design of
measureme
nts

Concern for
participants

STAGES IN THE PLANNING OF A SURVEY

SURVEY SAMPLING
Defining

the population upon

which the survey is to focus
Sample is the smaller group or
subset
There are methods of sampling;
probability sample and nonprobability sample

LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
The

term longitudinal is used to describe a

variety of studies that are conducted over a

period of time.
A

longitudinal study is an observational

research method in which data is gathered

for the same subjects repeatedly over a
period of time. Longitudinal research projects
can extend over years or even decades.

 Longitudinal

studies connect with word

developmental

because

it

deals

with

aspect of human growth. It catchs the

complexity of human behaviour.
This

type

of

research

can

combine

numerical and qualitative data.

Longitudinal

studies can be retrospective

(looking back in time, thus using existing

data)

or

prospective

collection of new data).

(requiring

the

Types of longitudinal
studies
A

cohort study

This study used in British literature. In this study,

a specific population is tracked over specific
period of time but selective in sampling within
that sample occurs (Borg and Gall 1979:291)
A

panel study

This study used in United States. In this study

each same individual is tracked over time.

Example

of longitudinal studies

Longitudinal research can be used to study a

variety of topics in the social sciences. Concordia
University researchers followed individuals for
over 20 years to compare peer evaluations from
elementary school to adult personalities. The
study results suggested that elementary school
peers

were

better

predictors

of

adulthood

success than elementary school self-evaluations.

CROSS-SECTIONAL
STUDIES
A

cross-sectional study is one

that produces a snapshot of a
population at a particular point in
time.
In education, this studies involve
indirect measure of the nature
and rate of changes in the
physical and intellectual
development of samples of
children drawn from
representative age levels.

Example
If

one were interested in the development of reading

comprehension abilities, different groups of children at ages

4, 5, 6, and 7 could be given tests that assess addition and
the strategies children use to arrive at their answers. In a
very brief time the test giver would have an idea of how this
important skill changes with age. (If the researcher used a
longitudinal design, in which the same children were tested
repeatedly over time, it would take them four years to get
the same information.) The intent of a cross-sectional design
is to allow psychologists to efficiently describe change over
time and to identify the various mechanisms associated with
those changes.

TREND STUDIES
Trend

studies focus on factors rather than people, and

these factors are studied over time.

New

samples are drawn at each stage of the data

collection, but focusing on the same factors.

The

trend study examines recorded data to establish

patterns of change that have already occured in order

to predict what will be likely to occur in the future.
This
A

study include the different respondents.

major difficulty that will be faced by the researcher

in this study is the instrusion of unpredictable factors

that invalidate forecast formulated on past data.

Strength and weakness of longitudinal,

cohort and cross-sectional studies
Longitudinal studies
Strenghts:
1. Useful for establishing causal relationships
and for making reliable inferences.
2. Shows
how
changing
properties
of
individuals fit into systemic change.
3. Useful
for
charting
growth
and
development.
4. Sampling error reduced as the study
remains with the same sample over time.
5. Enables
clear
recomendations
for
intervention to be made.

Weaknesses:
1.

Time consuming

2.

Problems of sample mortality heighten over time.

3.

Control effects

4.

Data, being reach at an individual level, are typically

complex to analyse.

Cross-Sectional Studies
Strengths:
5.

Comparatively quick to conduct.

6.

Comparatively cheap to administer.

7.

Limited control effects as subject only participate

once.

4.

Enable researchers to identify the proportions of

people in particular groups or states.

5.

Large samples enable inferential statistics to be used.

Weaknesses:
6.

Do not permit analysis of causal relationships.

7.

Unable to chart individual variations in development

or changes, and their significance.

8.

Sampling not entirely comparable at each round of

data collection as different samples are used.

9.

Can be time consuming.

10.

Unable to chart changing social processes over time.

Trend Analysis
Strengths:
1.

Maintains

clarity

of

focus

throughout

the

duration of the study.

2.

Enables prediction and projection on the basis of

identified.

Weaknesses:
3.

Neglects influence of unpredicted factors.

4.

Past trends are not always a good predictor of

future trends.

5.

The criteria for prediction may be imprecise.

Postal Surveys
A

postal survey will involve a questionnaire

being mailed out to an individual or an
address and includes a pre-paid return
envelope. Postal surveys are used when there
is a reliable contact database.
In a postal survey, the data collection is based
on self completion schemas, which the
selected target group has received by mail.
Postal surveys can reach a large number of
people, gather data at comparatively low cost
and quite quickly, and can give assurances of
confidentiality (Bailey 1994: 148).

Advantages
It

is possible to collect answers

from a fairly large amount of
persons, within a relatively short
time span, and a relatively limited
economic range
The respondents get the
possibility to answer the
questionnaire when they feel like
it and can find the time and space.

Advantages
Can

generate a large sample cost

effectively.
Can reach all groups (including
off-line / without
telecommunication).
Respondents can complete
questions in their own time and
without time pressure.

Disadvantages
the

inability to record spontaneous answers

the lack of control over the environment in which
the survey questionnaire is completed
the lack of control over the order in which the
questions are read and answered
the risk that some questions will not be answered
the standardization of wording
the inability to catch anything other than a verbal
response
the need for simplicity in format as there is
no interviewer present to guide the respondent
through a more complex format

Interview Surveys
Personal

interview surveys are

used to probe the answers of the
respondents and at the same
time, to observe the behavior of
the respondents, either
individually or as a group.

Advantages
1. High Response Rates
One of the main reasons why researchers
achieve good response rates through this
method is the face-to-face nature of the
personal interview survey.
2. Tolerable Longer Interviews
Open-ended questions are more
tolerated through interviews due to the
fact that the respondents would be more
convenient at expressing their long
answers orally than in writing.

3. Better Observation of Behavior

Educational researchers can benefit
from personal interview survey because
it presents a greater opportunity to
observe the attitude and behaviour of
the respondents/objects.
4. Squence Questions
Interview respondents are lead through
a questionnaire one question at a time
and cannot flick ahead or answer out of
order.

Disadvantages
Time-consuming
2. High Costs
1.

Telephone Surveys
Telephone

surveys, it is claimed
(Dooley 2001: 122), have the
advantage of reducing costs in
time and travel, for where a
potential respondent is not at
home a call-back costs only a few
coins and the time to redial.

Advantages
Answers

to questions asked in a telephone

interview are often as valid as those asked
face to face.
Telephone interviews have the impersonal
quality of self-administered questionnaires
and the personal quality of face to face
interviews.
Telephone surveying is less expensive than
face to face interviewing and convenient.
There is no reaction to the appearance of
telephone interviewers although respondents
do react to accents and speech patterns.

Disadvantages
A

disadvantage of the method is,

that it isnt suitable in surveys
where the focus is to make an indepth exploration of a more
narrow and focused subject.

Improving Response Rates in

A Survey
A

major difficulty in survey

research is securing a sufficiently
high response rate to give
credibility and reliability to the
data.

Increasing
response rates to mailed surveys
arranging

follow-ups and polite reminders (e.g.

by mail, email, telephone call)
sending advance notification of the survey
(e.g. by telephone, post or email)
supplying pre-paid return stamped addressed
envelopes
acknowledging institutional affiliation, survey
sponsorship or support from a high-status
agent
offering financial incentives (though increasing
the financial incentive to a high figure does
not bring commensurate returns in response

 giving rewards for return

ensuring surveys are easy to read
making instructions about responses and return
very clear
flattering the participants without being seen
to flatter them
providing information about the research
through a covering letter and/or advance
notification
making the survey look very unlike junk mail
delivering the questionnaire personally rather
than through the mail.

Event history analysis

Event

History Analysis is an
analysis which longitudinal record
of the timing of the occurrence of
one or more types of event.
In event history analysis the task
is to calculate the hazard rate
the probability of a dependent
variable occurring to an individual
within a specified time frame.

Debby

- Postal Survey Example!

Critical

Thinking to write