GEOLOGIC HAZARDS:

VOLCANISM, EARTHQUAKE, and

MASS MOVEMENTS
Plate Tectonics

Plate Boundaries

Divergent
Transform
Confergent
Plate Tectonics
Divergent Boundary

Results: the formation of Oceanic Crust

Plate Tectonics
Transform Boundary
Plate Tectonics
Convergent Boundary: Subduction

Melting
Produces
Calc
Alcaline
Magma

Results: formation & growth of Continental Crust

and destruction of Oceanic Crust
Plate Tectonics
Convergent Boundary: Collision

Results: growth of Continental Crust

Volcanoes
Where does it form
 VOLCANOES

A volcano is a vent or fissure in the Earths crust

through which molten magma, hot gases, and
other fluids escape to the surface of the land or to
the bottom of the sea
Volcanic eruption, based on the vent position can
be classified broadly into:
Central Eruption Type: the products escape via
a single pipe (vent) located on the summit
Side/Flank Eruption Type: the vent is located
on the flank of the volcano
Fissure Eruption Type: the products escape
from a linear vent or crack
Vent positions
Vent positions

Central Eruption Side Eruption

Fissure Eruption
Earths Geotherm

GEOTHERM: increase in
temperature with depth in the
earth
GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT is
the rate of change of T with
depth
In upper 100 km, average
geothermal gradient = 300C
km-1
Heat source is decay of
radioactive elements
This heat causes melting of
rocks to form Magma
Magma: molten rock material below earth
surface

Variation in magma properties include:

SILICA CONTENT
varies from 45% to 75%
VOLATILES (GAS CONTENT)
most common gases: H2O vapor,
CO2, SO2, H2S
TEMPERATURE OF ERUPTED MAGMA
varies from 12000C to about 8000C
Variation in magma properties affect VISCOSITY of
the magma
Viscosity of Magma

VISCOSITY refers to the thickness or fluidity of a

liquid
Liquid with HIGH viscosity are very thick,
sticky
Liquid with LOW viscosity are very fluid
Effect of various properties on magma viscosity:
Temperature: HIGH temperature = LOW
viscosity (i.e. very fluid)
Silica Content: HIGH silica = HIGH viscosity
Volatile Content: HIGH volatiles = LOW
viscosity
(However, high gas contents contribute to
explosive eruptions)
Types of Volcanoes, according to magma viscousity
Types of Volcanoes
Shield Volcanoes
Shield Volcanoes
Ropy lava of Shield Volcano
Shield Volcanoes

HOT SPOT
Strato Volcanoes
Strato Volcanoes
Lava Dome Volcanoes
Dome Volcanoes
Cinder Cone Volcanoes

Mt. Paricutin, Mexico

Bromo Complex & Semeru
Eruption Types and its characteristic, based on gas
pressure and the depth of the magma chamber:
low

high
shallow deep
Eruption Types

HAWAIIAN-HAWAI
Eruption Types

STROMBOLIAN - ANAK KRAKATAU

Eruption Types

VULCANIAN - PAPANDAYAN
GAMALAMA
Eruption Types

VULCANIAN DOME: MERAPI TYPE

Eruption Types

PELEEAN - ST HELLENS
Eruption Types
PLINIAN PINATUBO
Eruption Types

PLINIAN - TAMBORA
 Type of Eruption

Volcanian Type Merapi Type Plinian Type

 Merapi Type Characteristics

Very viscous magma

Low gas pressure
Magma composition:
Andesitic
Dome development
Nuee ardentes
davalance
Caldera Volcanoes

The formation of
Caldera
Caldera Volcanoes
Global Distribution of Volcanoes
Distribution of Volcanoes

from: http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~crlb/COURSES/270
Most subduction zones are in the Ring of Fire (so-called
because of volcanism of the Pacific)
Volcanism & Plate Tectonics

Volcanism in continental margin

Volcanism in islands arc

Volcanism & Plate Tectonics

Volcanism in
Mid Oceanic Ridge

Pacific Ocean
Volcanism & Plate Tectonics

Hot Spot Volcanism

Types and Zones of Volcanism
Finally . . .
Rest in Peace

COLUMNAR JOINT

VOLCANIC NECK
Earthquake
EARTHQUAKE

Photo credit: USGS

 EARTHQUAKE
Earthquake
A series of shock waves generated at a point (the
focus) within the Earths crust or mantle
The point on the surface of the Earth above the
focus is called the epicenter
Three main types of wave motion generating
earthquake: P-Waves; S-Waves; dan L-Waves
 EARTHQUAKE
P-Waves S-Waves L-Waves
High-frequency High-frequency Low-frequency
Short-wavelength Short-wavelength Long-wavelength
Longitudinal waves Transverse waves Transverse vibrations
Can be reflected and Can be reflected and Confined to the outer
refracted refracted skin of the crust
Travel through the Travel through the Responsible for most
solid and the liquid solid part of the of the destructive
part of the Earth Earth at varying force of earthquake
velocities.
Propagated in all
directions from
the focus
 EARTHQUAKE
Seismic Wave Types

Body Waves
Primary or Compressional
Secondary or Shear
Surface Waves
Rayleigh (large vertical displacements)
Love (shear)
 EARTHQUAKE
Seismic Wave Types
Body Waves

Primary (P) Wave Secondary (S) Wave

Surface Waves

Love Wave Rayleigh Wave

EARTHQUAKE
Elastic Rebound Theory

3 m offset

1906 San Francisco Earthquake

 EARTHQUAKE
Elastic Rebound Theory

here does the offset occur?

raw the relative movement
Offset Lettuce Rows - El Centro, CA
Effects of the Earthquake

Earthquakes dont kill people - buildings do!

Pancaked Building - 1985 Mexico City

Effects of the Earthquake

Surface Displacement - 1964 Alaska

Effects of the Earthquake
Effects of the Earthquake

Fence Compression - Gallatin County, MT

Effects of the Earthquake

Chile after earthquake

2010
Locating the Earthquake
Vertical Component Seismometer
Locating the Earthquake
Horizontal Component Seismometer
Locating the Earthquake
Distance Time Ralations
Measuring the Earthquake

Three distinct methods to measure earthquakes. Two

based on energy and one based on intensity.
Richter Magnitude Scale: originally developed for
southern California. Log scale, which has no upper
bound. Small earthquakes may yield negative
values. Tends to be inaccurate at >7 magnitudes.
Moment Magnitude Scale: measurement of the
amount of work done during the earthquake. Based
on rock strength, area of rupture, and displacement
during event.
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale: based on the
damage associated with a particular event at a
particular location. Ranges from I (less damage) to
XII (more damage).
Measuring the Earthquake
Magnitude-Description-Intensity-Frequency Relations
Effects of the Earthquake

Tsunami Devastation - 1964 Alaska Earthquake

Tsunami
Berasal dari bahasa Jepang: yang berarti "ombak
besar di pelabuhan", adalah gelombang pasang
yang terjadi setelah kejadian gempa bumi, letusan
gunung berapi, atau hantaman meteor di dasar
laut. Tinggi gelombang tsunami dapat mencapai
30 meter atau lebih,
Penyebab Terjadinya Tsunami
Ada gangguan di dasar laut:
Longsoran besar
Pergeseran kerak bumi atau patahan
(sesar) secara vertikal baik naik maupun
turun
Effects of the Earthquake

Tsumani Generation
Effects of the Earthquake

Tsunami Wave Propagation Times

Tsunami Aceh, 26 Desember 2004
Tanda- tanda Kejadian Tsunami
Terjadi gempa di dasar laut dengan
kekuatan 6,5 SR-
Permukaan air laut di pantai tiba-tiba
surut
Munculnya ombak besar yang tidak spt
biasanya
Suara gemuruh atau ledakkan dari
tengah laut.
Bau garam yang menyengat
Earthquake and Plate Tectonics
Earthquake Distribution
Earthquake and Plate Tectonics
Divergent Boundary and Earthquakes
Earthquake and Plate Tectonics
Divergent Boundary and Earthquakes

Earthquakes along
mid-ocean ridge are
shallower than those
along subduction zone

from: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/coax/coax.html
Earthquake and Plate Tectonics
Transform Boundary and Earthquakes
Earthquake and Plate Tectonics
Transform Boundary and Earthquakes

The western US
is somewhat
anomalous
Note: absence of
deep earthquakes

from: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/coax/coax.html
Earthquake and Plate Tectonics
Convergent Boundary and Earthquakes
Earthquake and Plate Tectonics
Shallow vs. Deep Subduction Earthquakes

Continent-continent collision
zones have broad areas of
of relatively shallow seismicity

Ocean-continent convergent
margins have earthquakes foci
that extend to great depths.
Mechanism tend to change from
extension to compression
downdip.
Earthquake and Plate Tectonics
deep intermediate shallow

Epicenters: location of earthquake rupture projected to

surface;
Dip of slab leads to observed seismicity patterns: deeper
farther from trench
Location of downgoing slab as it dives into mantle is defined
by seismicity.
Earthquakes occur along an inclined belt: the Wadati-Benioff
zone reaches maximum depth of ~670 km
from: http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~crlb/COURSES/270
Earthquake and Plate Tectonics
Seismicity of subduction zones

Seismicity Fiji Islands

Region: 1977 - 1997

Seismicity of Japan and Kuril Island:

1975 - 1995
Seismicity of Peru-Bolivia
Border Region: 1977 - 1997 all from: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/coax/coax.html
Seismic Map of Indonesia
 MASS MOVEMENT

Mass movements
Rock material may move under the influence of
gravity either vertically, horizontally, or
tangentially
Mass movement occurs on slopes
Slopes are dynamic evolving features
Slope evolution is influenced by topography,
rock type, climate, vegetation, water and
geologic time
It occurs naturally and/or are influenced by human
activities
It has caused substantial damage and loss of life
Synonymous: gravity transport, mass wasting,
mass-wasting movement, landslide
MASS MOVEMENT
 MASS MOVEMENT
Slow or rapid slope failure?

The rate of slope failure depends upon

Gradient, how steep the slope is
Materials composing the slope
Amount of water present in those materials
Rate of movement of those materials
The rate of movement varies from
imperceptible creep
to thundering avalanches
 MASS MOVEMENT
What Controls and Triggers Mass Movement?

Gravity
Gravity is the main driving force of
mass wasting
Water
Excessive rains weaken rock, loosen
soils, promote fluid flow
Removal of vegetation
Destroys root systems which bind
soil and regolith together
Earthquakes
Earthquakes dislodge huge volumes
of rock and unconsolidated material
 MASS MOVEMENT
What Controls and Triggers Mass Movement?

Relationship of shear
force and normal force
to gravity, the main
driving force for mass
wasting
Distribusi Gaya pada Lereng

G
 MASS MOVEMENT
What Controls and Triggers Mass Movement?
The effect of water on stability

Unsaturated grains are held Saturated grains are forced

together by surface tension apart by water, are less
of water, are more stable stable, able to flow easily.
MASS MOVEMENT

Why earthquake followed by

mass movement should be
happened in my place?

Mass movements after Yogyakarta

Earthquake May 27th, 2006
 MASS MOVEMENT
Classification of Mass Movement Processes

Mass movements processes are classified on the

basis of slow rapid
Rate of Movement
Fall
Type of Movement Slide
Slump
Creep
Type of Material Block Flow
Rock Complex movement
Sand (sliding and flow)
Debris
Soil
Earth
Mud
Type of movements
FALL
Type of movements
SLIDE
Type of movements
SLUMP
Type of movements
CREEP
Type of movements
FLOW
Classification of Mass Movements
Mass Movement Cases

Top of a church buried under 5 m of debris at Yungay

Tanah Longsor di Karanganyar
Mass Movement Cases

Creep
Creep is very slow down-slope movement (< 1
cm/yr) of soil or unconsolidated debris
The two factors that contribute most significantly
to creep are
water in the soil
daily cycles of freezing and thawing
Mass Movement Cases
Common Indicators of Creep
Mass Movement Cases
Debris Flows and Earthflows

The general term debris flow is used for mass

wasting in which motion takes place throughout
the moving mass (flow)
In an earthflow, the debris moves downslope as a
viscous fluid, sometimes slowly, sometimes
rapidly
Earthflows generally occur on steep debris-
covered hillsides after heavy rains have saturated
the soil
Mass Movement Cases

Earthflow Slump (rotational slide)

Mass Movement Cases
La Conchita, CA, Slump and
Earthflow 1995 (left), 2005 (right)
Mass Movement Cases

Mudflow caused by the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens

Mass Movement Cases
Rockfalls and Rockslides
When a block of bedrock breaks off and falls
freely or bounces down a steep cliff, it is called a
rockfall
Commonly, an apron of fallen bedrock blocks,
called talus, accumulates at the base of the cliff
A rockslide involves the rapid sliding of a mass of
bedrock along an inclined plane or weakness
Rockfalls and rockslides can be caused by the
undercutting of the base of a slope by erosion or
construction
Mass Movement Cases
Rockfalls
Mass Movement Cases
Rockfalls
Talus at the base
of a cliff

The product of
numerous rock
falls
Mass Movement Cases
The 1996 Yosemite National Park Rockfall

Notice movement of slide debris up the opposite side

of the valley
Mass Movement Cases

Slide scarp

Slide debris
deposited on the
opposite side of the
valley

The Gros Ventre Slide

Slide debris, opposite side of the
valley
Mass Movement Cases

The cause of the 1925 rockslide in the Gros Ventre

Mountains, Wyoming
Preventing Mass Movements

Construction and watering can cause a hillside to

become vulnerable to mass wasting

Do not
cut down hillsides
remove vegetation from hillsides
over water terraces that are built up on steep
hillsides
Preventing Mass Movements
Proper use of French drains can prevent mass wasting

How to install a French drain

Dump well sorted gravel against the wall on the upslope side
Install perforated drain pipes or punch holes through the wall
Cover gravel with a fine mesh to prevent small clasts from the
overlying soil from filling pore spaces in the gravel
Put soil on top of the mesh
Preventing Mass Movements
Build safe road cuts

Cross section of a hill The hazardous road

showing a safe road cut on cut after removal of
the left and a hazardous rock that may slide
road cut on the right
Preventing Mass Movements

Stitching is
one method used to
stabilize bedrock
to prevent a
rockslide along a
hazardous road cut
Preventing Mass Movements

Stitched bedrock along a hazardous road cut near Valdese, Alaska