History of Developmental Biology

Embryology vs. Developmental Biology

Embryology: Descriptive study of Developmental Biology: Includes the
embryonic development – includes all study of post-embryonic changes
multicellular organisms (plants, such as growth/maturation,
animals, fungi). metamorphosis, regeneration, aging.

Developmental Biology
is descriptive but also
incisive: what are the
mechanisms?
 History: Epigenesis vs. Preformation

Preformation: Everything in the embryo is ‘pre-formed’ and simply

grows during development.

Epigenesis: New structures arise progressively during development.

A ‘preformed’ embryo
(homunculus) within Malpighi’s drawings of
sperm (1694) chick embryos (1673)

5th century BC :
Aristotle favored epigenesis

17th century:
Marcello Malpighi
Chick embryology description(s) should
have confirmed Aristotle’s ideas
Preformation regained popularity
History: Cell Biology and Genetics

19th century:
More descriptive embryology
Evolution: ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny
Cell Theory
Genetics + Development
Germ cells vs. somatic cells (Weissmann)
 History: Cell Biology and Genetics

19th century:
More descriptive embryology
Evolution: ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny
Cell Theory
Genetics + Development
Germ cells vs. somatic cells (Weissmann)

Genes Proteins Cell Activities Developmental Processes

History: Cell Biology and Genetics

19th century:
More descriptive embryology
Evolution: ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny
Cell Theory
Genetics + Development
Germ cells vs. somatic cells (Weissmann)
 History: Nuclear Determination vs. “Regulation”

The mosaic model (Weismann): nuclear determinants are asymmetrically

distributed in zygote – these determine fate of embryonic cells.
The ‘regulation’ hypothesis suggests that embryonic development can adjust
to the loss of cells.
Driesch’s experiment (1880s) on
Roux’s experiment (1880s) on sea urchin embryos supported
frog embryos supported the the regulation hypothesis
mosaic model
 History: Genotype vs. Phenotype, Induction

20th century:

Johannsen – genotype = phenotype

(gene X environment interaction)

Mangold and Spemann - Induction: One cell (or tissue)

influences the development of another cell (or tissue).
 Model Organisms
Throughout history, and today :
Model organisms

Mouse, chick, Xenopus, zebrafish, Drosophila, c. elegans, arabidopsis

MOUSE (Mus musculus)

Advantages: Genetic manipulation, history of use, mammal, fast generation time.

Disadvantages: In utero development, costly.
 Model Organisms
Throughout history, and today :
Model organisms

Mouse, chick, Xenopus, zebrafish, drosophila, c. elegans, arabidopsis

CHICK (Gallus domesticus)

Advantages: In ovo development, history of use, amniote.

Disadvantages: Genetic manipulation not (yet?) possible; large ‘n’s difficult.
 Model Organisms
Throughout history, and today :
Model organisms

Mouse, chick, Xenopus, zebrafish, drosophila, c. elegans, arabidopsis

AFRICAN CLAWED FROG

(Xenopus laevis and Xenopus tropicalis)

Advantages: In ovo (rapid) development, large embryos, history of use, inexpensive.

Disadvantages: X. laevis is tetraploid.
 Model Organisms
Throughout history, and today :
Model organisms

Mouse, chick, Xenopus, zebrafish, drosophila, c. elegans, arabidopsis

ZEBRAFISH (Danio rerio)

Advantages: In ovo (rapid) development, genetic manipulation, history of use, inexpensive.

Disadvantages: ???? (o.k., so I’m biased ☺)
 Model Organisms
Throughout history, and today :
Model organisms

Mouse, chick, Xenopus, zebrafish, drosophila, c. elegans, arabidopsis

FRUIT FLY (Drosophila melanogaster)

Advantages: In ovo (rapid) development, genetic manipulation, history of use, inexpensive.

Disadvantages: Invertebrate
 Model Organisms
Throughout history, and today :
Model organisms

Mouse, chick, Xenopus, zebrafish, drosophila, c. elegans, arabidopsis

ROUNDWORM (caenorhabditis elegans)

Advantages: In ovo development, genetic manipulation, history of use, inexpensive.

Disadvantages: Invertebrate
 Model Organisms
Throughout history, and today :
Model organisms

Mouse, chick, Xenopus, zebrafish, drosophila, c. elegans, arabidopsis

MOUSE-EAR CRESS (arabidopsis thaliana)

Advantages: Rapid generation time, genetic manipulation, history of use, inexpensive.

Disadvantages: As a plant model, not many.
Modern Developmental Biology
Developmental genetics

Applications
Diseases and disorders of development/teratology
Tissue repair and replacement/stem cells
Aging and cancer
Agriculture and food science
Evolutionary biology
An introduction to the Developmental Biology literature
Journals (original research articles = primary literature):

Developmental Biology
Developmental Dynamics
Developmental Neurobiology
BMC Developmental Biology
Development, Genes and Evolution
Differentiation
Genes and Development
International Journal of Developmental Biology
Development
Developmental Cell
Mechanisms of Development

Science
Nature
Proceedings of the National Academy of Science
Cell
Neuron

Search via PubMed: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez

An introduction to the Developmental Biology literature

Most research articles involve the use of model organisms to probe the function of
genes/proteins for a specific developmental process.

Retinal Homeobox 1 is Required for Retinal Neurogenesis

and Photoreceptor Differentiation in Embryonic Zebrafish

Most make use of gain-of-function (GOF) or loss-of-function (LOF) approaches, using

genetic, molecular, or pharmacological tools to manipulate the target gene/protein.

LOF approach = antisense (morpholino) oligonucleotides targeting rx1 and rx2

Others will utilize cell/tissue transplantation techniques to probe developmental

potential of those cells/tissues
An introduction to the Developmental Biology literature
Most of the data are collected as images showing histology of the developing structure
of interest, and/or gene expression (in situ hybridization to localize mRNA, or
immunocytochemistry to localize corresponding protein) within that structure.

There is a LOT of jargon.