Michael Hodgson

Cell membranes are only about 7nm wide but

they present barriers to the movement of ions
and molecules, particularly polar (water-
soluble) molecules such as glucose and
amino acids that are repelled by the non-
polar, hydrophobic lipids of membranes.
This prevents the aqueous contents of the
cell from escaping.
However, transport across membranes must
still occur for a number of reasons, for
example:
 To obtain nutrients
To excrete substances
To secrete useful substances
To generate the ionic gradients essential for
nervous and muscular activity
To maintain a suitable pH and ionic
concentration within the cell for enzyme
activity.
 There are four basic mechanisms by which
movement occurs across the cell membrane:
1. diffusion,
2. osmosis,
3. active transport and
4. bulk transport (endocytosis or
endocytosis).
The first two processes are passive, that is
they do not require the expenditure of energy
by the cell; the latter two are active, energy-
consuming processes.
 Diffusion is the movement of molecules or
ions from a region of their high concentration
to a region of their low concentration down a
diffusion gradient.
The process is passive, that is it does not
require energy and happens spontaneously.
For example, if a bottle of perfume was
opened in a closed room, the perfume would
eventually spread by diffusion until
equilibrium was reached where the perfume
was evenly spread throughout the room.
This occurs by random motion of molecules
which is due to their kinetic energy (energy of
movement).
 Each type of molecule moves down its own
diffusion gradient independently of other
molecules.
For example, oxygen diffuses from the lung
into the blood while at the same time carbon
dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction.
Three factors in particular affect the rate of
difussion.
1. The steepness of the diffusion gradient, or
difference in concentration between point
A and point B: the steeper the gradient,
the faster the rate of diffusion. It is an
advantage for cells to maintain steep
diffusion gradients if rapid transport is
required. This can be achieved in the
lungs, for example, by speeding up the
flow of blood through the lungs or by
breathing faster.
2. The greater the surface are of a
membrane through which diffusion is
taking place, the greater the rate of
diffusion. The larger the cell, assuming it
is roughly spherical, the smaller its
surface area in relation to its volume. Thus
places a limit on cell size. For example, a
very large aerobic cell could not obtain
oxygen fast enough to satisfy its needs if
it relied on diffusion alone. Microvilli
increase the surface area of animal cells
for absorption purposes.
3. Rate of diffusion decreases rapidly with
distance (it falls in proportion to the square
of the distance). Diffusion is therefore only
effective over very short distances. This is
another factor which limits cell size. Cells
rely on diffusion for internal transport of
molecules so most are no larger than 50m
in diameter, with no part of the cell more
than 25 m from the cell surface. An amino
molecule, for example, can travel a few
micrometers in several seconds but would
take several days to diffuse a few
centimeters. It is also essential that
membranes are thin so that molecules or
ions can cross them rapidly.
 We can now consider which molecules cross
membranes by diffusion.
The respiratory gases oxygen and carbon
dioxide diffuse rapidly through membranes.
Water molecules, although very polar, are
small enough to pass between the
hydrophobic phospholipid molecules without
interference.
However, ions and larger polar molecules
such as amino acids, sugars, fatty acids and
glycerol are repelled by the hydrophobic
region of the membrane and diffuse across
extremely slowly. Other mechanisms are
required for these substances.
 Some ions and polar molecules can diffuse
through special transport proteins called channel
proteins and carrier proteins.
These contain water-filled hydrophobic channels
or pores whose shape is specific for a particular
ion or molecule.
Alternatively several proteins combine, forming a
channel between them. Diffusion can occur
through the channel in either direction.
Since diffusion would not be possible without the
protein or proteins, the process is known as
facilitated diffusion.
Transport proteins allow the passage of ions are
called ion channels.
 Osmosis is the passage of water molecules
from a region of their high concentration to a
region of their low concentration through a
partially permeable membrane.
It is best regarded as a form of diffusion in
which only water molecules move.
The tendency of water molecules to move
from one place to another is measured as the
water potential, represented by the symbol .
 Water always move from a region of higher
water potential to one of lower water
potential.
Solute molecules reduce (in effect, they
dilute the water!).
The extent by which they lower is known as
solute potential, given symbol s.
Consider the effects of different solution on
red blood cells.
 In a hypotonic solution, the solution has a higher
water potential than the contents of the red cell.
Water therefore enters by osmosis and the cell
bursts, dispersing the cell contents.
A hypertonic solution has lower water potential
than the cell contents, so water leaves the cell by
osmosis and the cell shrinks.
In an isotonic solution, water potential of the cell
equals that of the external solution and no net
movement of water occurs. The cell remains
normal.
Blood plasma must be kept isotonic to red blood
cells and other body cells.
 Cells do not burst when it is put into water
As it swells it push against the strong cell wall
Cell wall resists expansion of the cell, exerting a
force called pressure potential
Cell becomes full and stiff, a state called turgor
In concentrated solutions water leaves cell by
osmosis
The cell therefore shrinks
If lot of water is loss, cells loses its turgor and is
said to be flaccid
Volume of cell gets smaller and plasma
membrane pulls away from the cell wall
A cell in this state is said to be plasmolysed
 Active transport is the energy-consuming
transport of molecules or ions across a
membrane against a concentration gradient.
Energy is required because the substance
must be moved against its natural tendency
to diffuse in the opposite direction.
Movement is usually in one direction only,
unlike diffusion which is reversible.
The energy supplied in the form of a
molecule known as ATP, which is an energy
carrier made in respiration.
Without respiration, active transport is
therefore impossible.
 The major ions inside cells and in their, are
sodium ions (Na+), potassium ions (K+) and
chloride (Cl-) ions.
Sodium is actively pumped out of the cell and
potassium is actively pumped in.
Active transport is achieved by carrier
proteins situated in the cell surface
membrane.
Unlike the situation described for facilitated
diffusion, the carrier proteins involved in
active transport need a supply of energy to
keep changing shape. The energy is provided
by ATP from respiration.
 It has been shown that the cell surface
membranes of most cells have sodium pumps
that actively pump sodium ions out of the
cell.
In animal cells, the sodium pump is coupled
with a potassium pump which actively moves
potassium ions from outside to inside the
cell.
The combined pump is called the sodium-
potassium pump (Na+-K+ pump).
The pump is a carrier protein which spans the
membrane from one side to the other.
 On the inside it accepts sodium and ATP,
while one the outside it accepts potassium.
The transfer of sodium and potassium across
the membrane is brought about by changes
in the shape of the protein.
Note that for every 2K+ taken into the cell,
3Na+ are removed.
Thus a potential difference is built up across
the membrane, with the inside of the cell
being negative.
This tends to restrict the entry of negatively
charge ions (anions) such as chloride.
 The pump is essential in controlling the
osmotic balance of animal cells
(osmoregulation).
If the pump is inhibited, the cell swells and
burst because a build-up of sodium ions
results in excess water entering the cells by
osmosis.
 Endocytosis and exocytosis are active
processes involving the bulk transport of
materials through membranes, either into
cells (endocytosis) or out of cells (exocytosis)
 Endocytosis occurs by an infolding or
extension of the cell surface membrane to
form vesicles or vacuole. It is of two types.
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis
 Phagocytosis (cell eating) material taken
up is in solid form. Cells specializing in the
process are called phagocytes and are said to
be phagocytic.
For example, some white blood cells take up
bacteria by phagocytosis. The sac formed
during uptake is called a phagocytic vacuole.
Pinocytosis (cell drinking)- material taken
up is in liquid form. Vesicles formed are often
extremely small, in which case the process is
known as micropinocytosis and the vesicles
as micropinocytotic vesicles.