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17.1 Fundamentals - Sample
17.1 Fundamentals - Sample
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m Module 17A and 17B
Licence Category A, B1 and B3
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Propeller
17.1 Fundamentals
Copyright 2014 Total Training Support
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Module 17 Propeller
Copyright Notice The applicant should be able to give a general description of the
Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this subject using, as appropriate, typical examples.
publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in
transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches,
without the prior written permission of Total Training Support drawings and schematics describing the subject.
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Ltd. The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical
Knowledge Levels Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C manner using detailed procedures.
Aircraft Maintenance Licence LEVEL 3
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of
allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable
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the subject.
subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of
category B2 basic knowledge levels.
knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:
Objective
LEVEL 1 The applicant should know the theory of the subject and
s:
A familiarization with the principal elements of the subject. interrelationships with other subjects.
Objectives:
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The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the
subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the
whole subject, using common words and examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the
subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples.
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical
formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare
sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical
manner using manufacturer's instructions.
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LEVEL 2 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the sources and measurements and apply corrective action where
subject. appropriate.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical
fundamentals of the subject.
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by Regulation (EC) No.1149/2011, and the associated Knowledge
Levels as specified below:
Objective Part-66 Licence Category
Reference A B1 B3
Fundamentals 17.1 1 2 2
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Blade element theory;
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rotational speed;
Propeller slip;
Aerodynamic,
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centrifugal, and thrust
forces;
Torque;
Vibration and
resonance.
Module 17 Propeller
Table of Contents Thrust Bending Force 30 Torque Bending Force
30 Aerodynamic Twisting Moment (ATM) 32 Centrifugal
Chapter 17.1 Fundamentals 6 Twisting Moment (CTM) 32 Turning Moments in the Windmill
Introduction Condition 32
Pitch Range 34 Handling Effects - Single Engine
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6 Propulsive Force Aircraft 36
Asymmetric Effect (P-Factor) 36
Slipstream Effect 36 Torque Reaction 36 Gyroscopic
6 Propeller Terms Effect 38
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Thrust and Power Development 40
Power Development in Piston Engines 40
8 Effective Pitch, Geometric Pitch and Slip Power Development in Turboprop Engines 40
10 Angle of Attack Turboprop Configurations 43 Vibrational Forces and
12 Propeller Configuration Resonance 44 Glossary 47
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Pusher
Propeller Solidity
and Left Handed Propellers
The Blade Element
14 Tractor 14 Contra-Rotating
Counter-Rotating
16 Propeller Clearances
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18 Right
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20 Blade Angle and Blade Pitch
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Blade Twist 22 Forces on a Blade Element 24
Variation of Propeller Efficiency with Speed 26
Windmilling 26
Feathering 28
Reverse Thrust 28 Forces Acting on the Propeller
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Centrifugal Force 28
Module 17 Propeller
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Copyright 2014 Total Training Support
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Module 17 Propeller
Chapter 17.1 Fundamentals A propeller moves a large mass of air rearward, at a relatively
slow speed, as opposed to a gas turbine engine, which moves a
small mass of air rearward at a high speed.
Introduction
Throughout the development of controlled flight as we know it,
every aircraft required some kind of device to convert engine Thrust = Mass(V o V I )
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power to some form of thrust. Nearly all of the early practical
aircraft designs used propellers to create this thrust.
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backwards, to aerofoil shapes. These aerofoils produced lift to pull
the aircraft forward through aerodynamic action.
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able to change the propeller blade angle in flight led to wide
acceptance of the two-position propeller and, later, the constant
speed propeller system.
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Figure 1.2: Blade Terms
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A propeller is a rotating aerofoil that consists of two or more blades
attached to a central hub which is mounted on the engine
crankshaft. The function of the propeller is to convert engine power
to useful thrust. Propeller blades have a leading edge, trailing
edge, a tip, a shank, a face, and a back.
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Blade angle is the angle between the propellers plane of
rotation, and the chord line of the propeller aerofoil.
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Pitch is the distance (in inches or millimetres) that a
propeller section will move forward in one revolution.
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Figure 1.3: Blade Terms
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Rather than using blade angles at a reference station, some
propeller manufacturers express pitch in inches at 75% of
the radius.
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element would move forward in one revolution along a helix, or
spiral, determined by its blade angle.
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The difference between geometric and effective pitch is
called propeller slip.
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Figure 1.4: Effective pitch, Geometric pitch and Slip (measured
at Master Station)
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Angle of attack relates to the blade pitch angle, but it is not a
fixed angle. It varies with the forward speed of the aeroplane and
the RPM of the propeller.
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As an example, when there is no forward speed, angle of attack
() and blade pitch angle are the same, 20.
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Module 17 Propeller
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Figure 1.5: Angle of Attack at different forward
speeds
Pusher
Tractor
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Contra-Rotating
Counter-Rotating
All the above types can be between two and five bladed
propellers, but usually small two blade propellers are used on
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small piston engines and three, four or five bladed propellers are
used for high powered piston or gas turbine engines.
Pusher
A little confusing, as it is sometimes known as the Propeller. This
type, as the name implies, pushes the airframe through the air
Tractor
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and is usually fitted behind the mainplane.
This type pulls the airframe through the air and is usually
fitted forward of the mainplane.
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Module 17 Propeller
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Figure 1.7: The Cessna 337 Skymaster has a pusher AND a
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tractor propeller
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Figure 1.6: Pusher propellers on the Piaggio P.180
Avanti
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Module 17 Propeller
Contra-Rotating
This configuration is where there are two propeller units on one
shaft, driven by the same engine, but rotating in opposite
directions. This gives the advantage of reducing the disc area, but
maintaining the thrust to enable lower undercarriage configurations Solidity may be increased by:
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to be used or higher RPMs from the engine due to reduced tip
speed. When a propeller has more than six blades, it becomes Increasing number of blades (limited by hub strength
inefficient, a contra- rotating propeller is also a method of so contra-rotating is an option)
overcoming this problem. Increasing the chord of the blades (C130 uses paddle type
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The rear propeller is usually of a smaller diameter than the front blades)
propeller, so the blade tips will not be affected by air vortices Increasing the length of the blades (Limited by tips
from the front propeller tips. going sonic and ground clearance).
Counter-Rotating
With a large rotating mass such as a propeller, it will produce a
significant turning moment or torque on the airframe. To overcome
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this problem on multi-engined aircraft, counter rotating propellers
are often used. In this system you would have, for example, the
port engine propeller rotating clockwise and the starboard engine
propeller rotating anti-clockwise, thus balancing the torque effects.
Propeller Solidity
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Solidity is the term used to describe the ability of the propeller to
absorb power from the engine. For example a C130 propeller will
require high solidity, whilst a Cessna 150 will be somewhat less.
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Figure 1.8: The Contra-rotating propeller of the P51
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Figure 1.10: Solidity
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have to be in the takeoff position to measure the ground
clearance.
Fuselage Clearance
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With a multi-engined aircraft, this is the clearance between the
side of fuselage and the propeller tip.
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Module 17 Propeller
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Ref EASA CS 25.925
Figure 1.11: Propeller clearances
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Module 17 Propeller
Right and Left Handed Propellers
A right handed propeller is one which rotates in a clockwise
direction when viewed from aft - looking forward.
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direction when viewed from aft - looking forward.
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blade. Because the blade section of a propeller is an aerofoil
section its aerodynamics can be studied in the same way, using
the same terms.
Rotational Velocity
When the aircraft is stationary the motion of the element is purely
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rotational. At a given RPM the velocity of the blade element
increases as it moves towards the blade tip. Shock wave effects
as the tip speed approaches Mach 1 limit the length of blade. In
addition there is the obvious limitation of tip to ground clearance.
Forward Velocity
When the propeller is stationary the forward velocity is entirely the
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due to the forward speed of the aircraft (TAS). However when the
propeller is rotating and therefore drawing air through the blade
disc then there is an additional induced airflow.
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m Figure 1.12: Aerofoil Terms
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Figure 1.13: Airflow Components
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pitch.
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all blades have tip losses that cause Slip, resulting in a forward
distance moved per revolution called Effective Pitch.
Blade Twist
Earlier it was stated that the rotational velocity increases with
distance towards the blade tip. It is necessary therefore to
reduce the blade angle towards the tip in order to maintain an
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efficient angle of attack (4o- 6o is the norm). This is the reason for
the twist on a blade as shown in figure 1.15.
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Module 17 Propeller
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Figure 1.15: Blade Twist
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Figure 1.14: Blade Angle pitch relationships
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Module 17 Propeller
Forces on a Blade Element
The aerodynamic force produced by setting the blade element at
a small positive angle of attack i.e. the total reaction - may be
resolved with respect to the direction of motion of the aircraft. The
component thus obtained which is parallel to the flight path is the
thrust force, and that which remains is the propeller torque force.
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Notice that the propeller torque force is the resistance to motion in
the plane of rotation.
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Module 17 Propeller
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m Figure 1.16: Blade Twist Figure 1.17: Effect of speed on a fixed pitch
propeller
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