Chapter 1

Concepts and foundations of

Remote Sensing

Introduction to Remote Sensing

Instructor: Dr. Cheng-Chien Liu
Department of Earth Science
National Cheng-Kung University
 1.1 Introduction
General definition of Remote Sensing:
The Science and art of obtaining information about an
object, area, or phenomenon through the analysis of data
acquired by a device that is not in contact with the object,
area, or phenomenon under investigation.

e.g. reading process

word eyes brain meaning
data sensor processing information
 1.1 Introduction (cont.)
Collected data can be of many forms:
variations in force distribution e.g.
gravity meter
acoustic wave distribution e.g. sonar
electromagnetic energy distribution
e.g. eyes
our focus: electromagnetic energy
distribution
 1.1 Introduction (cont.)
Fig. 1.1 Generalized processes and
elements involved in electromagnetic
remote sensing of earth resources.
data acquisition: a-f (1.2 - 1.5)
data analysis: g-i (1.6 - 1.10)
 1.2 Energy sources and
radiation principles
Fig. 1.3 electromagnetic spectrum
memorize
Wave theory: c = nl
c : speed of light (3x108 m/s)
n : frequency (cycle per second, Hz)
l : wavelength (m)

unit: micrometer mm = 10-6 m

 1.2 Energy sources and
radiation principles (cont.)
Fig. 1.3 (cont.)
Spectrum :
UV (ultraviolet)
Vis (visible)
narrow range, strongest, most sensitive to human eyes
blue: 0.4~0.5mm
green: 0.5~0.6mm
red: 0.6~0.7mm
IR (infrared)
near-IR: 0.7~1.3 mm
mid-IP: 1.3~3.0 mm
thermal-IR: 3.0 mm~1mm heat sensation
microwave: 1mm~1m
 1.2 Energy sources and
radiation principles (cont.)
Fig. 1.3 (cont.)
Particle theory: Q = hn
Q: quantum energy (Joule)
h: Planck's constant (6.626x10-34 J sec)
n: frequency

Q = hn = hc/l 1/l
implication in remote sensing:lQ viewing
areaenough area
 1.2 Energy sources and
radiation principles (cont.)
Stefan-Boltzmann law:
M = sT4
M: total radiant exitance from the surface of a material
(watts m-2)
s: Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.6697x10-8 W m-2K-4)
T: absolute temperature (K) of the emitting material

blackbody:
a hypothetical, ideal radiator totally absorbs and reemits all
incident energy
 1.2 Energy sources and
radiation principles (cont.)
Fig 1.4: Spectral distribution of energy
radiated from blackbodies of various
temperatures
Area total radiant exitance M
T M (graphical illustration of S-B law)
Wien's displacement law:
lm=A/T 1/T
lm : dominant wavelength, wavelength of maximum spectral radiant (mm)
A: 2898 (K)
T: absolute temperature (K) of the emitting material
e.g. heating iron: dull red orange yellow white
 1.2 Energy sources and
radiation principles (cont.)
Fig 1.4 (cont.)
Sun: T6000K lm0.5mm (visible light)
incandescent lamp: T 3000K lm 1mm
"outdoor" file used indoors "yellowish
need high blue energy flash compensate

Earth: T 300K lm 9.7mm thermal

energy radiometer
l<3mm: reflected energy predominates
l>3mm: emitted energy prevails

Passive Active
 1.3 Energy interaction in the
atmosphere
Path length
space photography: 2 atmospheric
thickness
airborne thermal sensor: very thin path
length
sensor-by sensor
 1.3 Energy interaction in the
atmosphere (cont.)
Scattering
molecular scale: d << l Rayleigh scatter
Rayleigh scatter effect 1/l4
"blue sky" and "golden sunset"
Rayleigh "haze" imagery filter (Chapter 2)
wavelength scale: d l Mie scatter
influence longer wavelength
dominated in slightly overcast sky
large scale: d >> l
e.g. water drop
nonselective scatter f(l)
that's why fog and clod appear white
why dark clouds black?
 1.3 Energy interaction in the
atmosphere (cont.)
absorption
absorbers in the atmosphere:
water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone
Fig 1.5: Spectral characteristics of (a)
energy sources (b) atmospheric effect
(c) sensing systems
atmospheric windows
 1.3 Energy interaction in the
atmosphere (cont.)
important considerations
sensor: spectral sensitivity and
availability
windows: in the spectral range sense
source: magnitude, spectral composition
1.4 Energy interactions with earth
surface features
Fig 1.6: basic interactions between incident
electromagnetic energy and an earth
surface feature
EI(l) = ER(l) + EA(l) + ET(l)
incident = reflected + absorbed + transmitted

ER = ER(feature, l)
distinguish features R.S.
in visible portion: ER(l) color
most R.S. reflected energy predominated ER important!
1.4 Energy interactions with earth
surface features (cont.)
Fig. 1.7: Specular versus diffuse reflectance
specular diffuse (Lambertian)
surface roughness incident wavelength: lI
if lI << surface height variations diffuse
for R.S. measure diffuse reflectance

spectral reflectance E R (l )
l
E I (l )
1.4 Energy interactions with earth
surface features (cont.)
Fig 1.8: Spectral reflectance curve (SRC)
object type ribbon (envelope) rather than a
single line
characteristics of SRC choose wavelength
characteristics of SRC choose sensor
near-IR photograph does a good job (Fig 1.9)

Many R.S. data analysis mapping

spectrally separable understand the spectral
characteristics
1.4 Energy interactions with earth
surface features (cont.)
Fig 1.10: Typical SRC for vegetation, soil
and water
average curves
vegetation:
pigment chlorophyll two valleys (0.45mm: blue; o.67mm: red)
green
if yellow leaves (red) green + red
from 0.7 mm to 1.3 mm minimum absorption (< 5%) strong
reflectance = f(internal structure of leaves) discriminate species and
detect vegetation stress
l > 1.3 mm three water absorption bands (1.4, 1.9 and 2.7 mm)
water content (l)
(l) = f(water content, leaf thickness)
1.4 Energy interactions with earth
surface features (cont.)
Fig 1.10 (cont.)
soil
moisture content (lwab)
soil texture: coarse drain moisture
surface roughness
iron oxide, organic matter
These are complex and interrelated variables
1.4 Energy interactions with earth
surface features (cont.)
Fig 1.10 (cont.)
water
near-IR: water (lnear-IR)
visible: very complex and interrelated
surface
bottom
material in the water
clear water blue
chlorophyll green
CDOM yellow
pH, [O2], salinity, ... (indirect) R.S.
1.4 Energy interactions with earth
surface features (cont.)
Spectral Response Pattern
spectrally separable recognize feature
spectral signatures absolute, unique
reflectance, emittance, radiation measurements, ...

response patterns quantitative, distinctive

variability exists!
identify feature types spectrally variability causes problems
identify the condition of various objects of the same type we have to
rely on these variabilities
1.4 Energy interactions with earth
surface features (cont.)
Spectral Response Pattern (cont.)
minimize unwanted spectral variability
maximize variability when required!
spatial effect: e.g. different species of
plant
temporal effect: e.g. growth of plant
change detection
1.4 Energy interactions with earth
surface features (cont.)
Atmospheric influences on spectral
response patterns
sensor-by-sensor
ET
mathematical expression: Ltot Lp
: reflectance
E: incident irradiance
T: atmospheric transmission
Lp: path radiance
E = Edir + Edif
E = E(t)
 1.5 Data acquisition and
interpretation
detection
photograph chemical reaction
simple and inexpensive
high spatial resolution and geometric integrity
detect and record
electronic energy variation
broader spectral range of sensitivity
improved calibration potential
electronically transmit data
record on other media (e.g. magnetic tape)

photograph image
 1.5 Data acquisition and
interpretation (cont.)
data interpretation
pictorial (image) analysis
human mind visual interpretation judgment
disadvantages:
extensive training
limitation of human eyes not fully evaluate spectral characteristics

digital data analysis:

digital image 2-D array of pixels
digital number (DN)
A-D signal conversion
Fig 1.13: input voltage (V), sampling interval (DT), output integer
DN range:8-bit: 0~255, 10-bit: 0~1023
easier for automatic processing, but limited in spectral pattern
interpretation
 1.6 Reference data
R.S. needs some form of reference data
Purposes:
Analysis and interpretation
calibration
verification
 1.6 Reference data (cont.)
Collecting reference data
should be according to principles of
statistical sampling design
expensive and time consuming
time-critical
time-stable
 1.6 Reference data (cont.)
Collecting reference data (cont.)
ground-based measurement
principle of spectroscipy
spectroradiometer spectral reflectance curves (continuous)
laboratory spectroscopy
in-situ field measurement preferred!
four modes of operation: hand held, telescoping boom, helicopter, aircraft
multiband radiometer (discrete)
three-step process:
calibration known, stable reflectance
measurement reflected radiation
computation reflectance factor
Lambertian surface
bidirectional reflectance factor
1.7 An ideal remote sensing system
A uniform energy source
A non-interfering atmosphere
A series of unique energy/matter interaction
at the earth's surface
A super sensor
A real-time data-handling system
Multiple data users
This kind of system doesn't exist!!!
1.8 Characteristics of real remote
sensing system
energy source
active R.S. controlled source
passive R.S. solar energy
Both are not uniform and are fn(t, X)
need calibration: mission by mission
deal with "relative energy"

atmosphere
effects = fn(l, t, X)
importance of these effects = fn(l, sensor,
application)
elimination/compensation calibration
1.8 Characteristics of real remote
sensing system (cont.)
The energy/matter interaction at the
earth's surface
reflected/emitted energy spectral
response pattern not unique! full of
ambiguity difficult to differentiate
our understanding elementary level for
some materials non-exist for others
1.8 Characteristics of real remote
sensing system (cont.)
Sensor
no super sensor
limitation of spectral sensitivity
limitation of spatial resolution
Fig 1.17: (a) crop (b) crop + soil (c) two fields
digital image pure pixel + mixed pixel
trade-offs
photographic system: spatial resolution spectral sensitivity
non-photographic system: spatial resolution spectral sensitivity
platform, power, storage, ...
1.8 Characteristics of real remote
sensing system (cont.)
Data-handling system
sensor capability > data-handling
capability
data processing an effort entailing
considerable thought, instrumentation,
time, experience, reference data
computer + human
1.8 Characteristics of real remote
sensing system (cont.)
Multiple data users
data information
understand (a) acquisition (b) interpretation (c) use
satisfy the needs of all data users
impossible!
R.S. New and unconventional not
many users
but as time potential limitation
users
 1.9 Successful application of
remote sensing
Premise: integration
many inventorying and monitoring
problems are not amenable to solution by
means of R.S.
 1.9 Successful application of
remote sensing (cont.)
Five conceptions of successful designs of
R.S.
Clear definition of problem
Evaluation of the potential for addressing the
problem with R.S.
Identify the data acquisition procedures
Determine the data interpretation procedures
and the reference data
Identify the criteria for judging the quality of
information
 1.9 Successful application of
remote sensing (cont.)
Improvement of the success for many
applications of R.S. multiple-view
for data collection more information
multistage (Fig 1.18)
multispectral (multi sensors)
multitemporal
 1.9 Successful application of
remote sensing (cont.)
Example: detection, identification and
analysis of forest disease and insect
problems (multistage)
space images overall view of vegetation categories
refined stage of images aerial extent and position
delineate stressed sub-areas
field-checked and documentation
extrapolate to other area
detailed ground observation evaluate the question of
what the problem is.
R.S. where? how much? how severe? ...
 1.9 Successful application of
remote sensing (cont.)
Likewise, multispectral imagery
more information
The multispectral approach forms the heart of numerous
R.S. applications involving discrimination of earth resource
types and conditions
 1.9 Successful application of
remote sensing (cont.)
Multitemporal sensing monitor land use
change
Summary
R.S. eyes of GIS (see 1.10)
R.S. transcend the cultural boundaries
R.S. transcend the disciplinary boundaries
(nobody owns the field of "R.S.")
R.S. important in natural resources
management
 1.10 Land and geographic
information systems (LIS, GIS)
Definition
GIS: A system of hardware, software,
data, people, organizations, and
institutional arrangements for collecting,
storing, analyzing, and disseminating
information about areas of earth
LIS: A GIS having, as its main focus, data
concerning land records
 1.10 Land and geographic
information systems (cont.)
Definition (cont.)
Other definitions:
GIS: large area, regional, national or
global
LIS: small area, local, detailed data
 1.10 Land and geographic
information systems (cont.)
GIS
GIS computer-based systems
GIS information of features
GIS geographical location
data type:
locational data
attribute data
 1.10 Land and geographic
information systems (cont.)
GIS (cont.)
One benefit of GIS:
spatially interrelate multiple types of
information stemming from a range of sources
Fig 1.19: example of studying soil erosion in a
watershed
various sources of maps
land data files (slope, erodibility, runoff)
derived data
analysis output high soil erosion potential
 1.10 Land and geographic
information systems (cont.)
GIS analysis overlay analysis
aggregation
buffering
network analysis
intervisibility
perspective views
 1.10 Land and geographic
information systems (cont.)
GIS 2 primary approaches
raster (grid cell)
pros:
simplicity of data structure
computational efficiency
efficiency for presenting
high spatial variability
blurred boundaries
cons:
data volume
limitation of spatial resolution grid size
topological relationship among spatial features difficult
high spatial variability
blurred boundaries

vector (polygon)
pros and cons: refer to raster
 1.10 Land and geographic
information systems (cont.)
Digital R.S. imagery raster format
easier for raster-based GIS
output raster format
Plate 1:
(a) land cover classification by TM data
(b) soil erodibility data
(c) slope information
(d) soil erosion potential map
red row crops growing on erodible soils on steep slopes the
highest potential
 1.10 Land and geographic
information systems (cont.)
Two wrong conclusions:
must be raster format wrong!
GIS conversion between raster and vector
GIS integration of raster and vector data

must be digital format wrong!

visual interpretation of R.S. imagery locate features GIS
GIS information classification R.S. imagery
two-way interaction between R.S. imagery and GIS

R.S. & GIS boundary becomes blurred!

 1.11 Organization
simple complex
short l long l
photographic system Chapter 2, 3, 4
non-photographic system Chapter 5,
6, 7, 8