Principles of

Underwater Sound
Naval Weapons Systems
 Learning Objectives
Physical properties associated with sound
travel in water
Why sound energy is employed for
surveillance and detection
Sound propagation losses
Self-noise and ambient noise, SNR
Comprehend concept of FOM
 Learning Objectives
Effects of temperature, pressure, and
salinity
Know basic thermal and sound-velocity
structure of the ocean
Comprehend use of Snells Law
Comprehend the three basic sound-speed
gradients
Basic properties of ocean currents
 Why do we use SOUND?
Range of Penetration
Identify Objects
Speed of Propagation
 Concepts of Sound
Three (3) elements required for this to work
Source
Medium
Detector (Receiver)
The source VIBRATES causing a series of
compressions and rarefactions in a medium
Most concepts already discussed will apply
 Transmission Losses

Spreading
Spherical (omni-directional point source)
Cylindrical (horizontal radiation only)
 Transmission Losses (cont.)
Attenuation
Absorption
Process of converting acoustic energy into heat
Increases with higher frequency
Scattering and Reverberation
Volume: Marine life, bubbles, etc.
Surface: Ocean surface, wind speed
Bottom:
Not a problem in deep water
Significant problem in shallow water
 Questions?

WEDNESDAY: Review
FRIDAY: EXAM 1
 Self Noise
Machinery Noise
Pumps, reduction gears, power plant, etc.
Flow Noise
Relative motion between the object and the water
High speed causes more noise (more friction)
Hull fouling - Animal life on hull (not smooth)
Want LAMINAR flow
Cavitation
Local pressure behind allows steam to form (low
pressure area)
Bubbles collapse, VERY NOISY
 Screw Cavitation

Blade Tip Sheet

Cavitation Cavitation
Water Flow Water Flow

Screw Speed , Pressure behind screw blades , Water Boils,

Bubbles form, The subsequent collapsing of the bubbles cause the noise.

What effect does increased depth have on cavitation?

 Ambient Noise
Hydrodynamic
Caused by the movement of water.
Includes tides, current, storms, wind, rain, etc.
Seismic
Movement of the earth (earthquakes)
Biological
Produced by marine life
Passive and active
Ocean Traffic
At long ranges only low frequencies are present.
 How do we detect a submarine?
Detect the reflected SIGNAL
Detect the signal over the background
NOISE
SONAR (Sound Navigation Ranging)
SONAR equations
Look at losses compared to signal
Probability of detection
 Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
Same as with RADAR. The ratio to the received echo from
the target to the noise produced by everything else.

Detection Threshold (DT)

The level, of received signal, required for an experienced
operator to detect a target signal 50% of the time.

S - N > DT
Passive Sonar Equation

SL - TL - NL + DI > DT
SL: Source level:- sound level of targets noise source.
TL: Transmission Losses: (reflection, absorption, etc.)
NL: Noise Level: (Ambient noise)
DI: Directivity Index
DT: Detection Threshold
 DT

Sonar
Equipment

SR Maul!!!!!
DI

TL
NL SL

SL-TL-NL+DI=DT
 Active Sonar Equations
**Ambient Noise Limited:**

SL - 2TL + TS - NL + DI > DT
Reverberation Noise Limited: (Reverb > ambient noise)

SL - 2TL + TS - RL > DT

TS: Target Strength, A measure of the reflectivity of the

target to an active sonar signal.
 DT

Sonar
Equipment

SR Hall!!!!!!!
DI

2TL
TS
SL
NL

SL - 2TL + TS - NL + DI > DT
 Figure of Merit (FOM)

FOM = the maximum allowable one-way transmission

loss in passive sonar, and the maximum two-way trans-
mission loss in active for a detection probability of 50%.

PFOM = SL - NL + DI - DT
AFOM = SL + TS - NL + DI - DT
 Factors that affect Sound in
H2O
Temperature
Pressure
Salinity
It will bend towards
areas of slower speed.

SOUND IS LAZY!!
 Speed of Sound in Water
SOUND IS LAZY!!
Variable Effects of:
Salinity Pressure Temperature
Salinity Pressure Temperature

Depth
Depth

Depth
 Typical Deep Ocean
Sound Velocity Profile
Speed of Sound (meters/sec)
1480 1500 1520
Surface Layer
Seasonal Thermocline

Permanent Thermocline
Depth of Water (meters)

1000

2000 Deep Isothermal Layer

3000

SOUND IS LAZY!!
 Ray Propagation Theory

The path sound travels can be depicted as

a RAY or VECTOR

RAYS will change direction when

passing through two mediums of different
density. REFRACTION!
Snells Law
Sound will bend TOWARDS the region
of SLOWER sound speed. Sound is lazy!
 ISOVELOCITY

Temperature
Range

Transducer

Depth

Maximum Echo Range

 Negative Gradient

Direction of Increasing
Temperature and Velocity
Depth
Water Warm

T Depth Shadow Zone

C
Water
Cool

Negative Gradient Thermal Structure Sound Bends Down When Water Grows
Cooler With Depth
 Positive Gradient

Direction of Increasing
Temperature and Velocity
Depth
Water
Cool

T C
Shadow Zone

Water Warm
When Temperature Increases with
Positive Gradient Thermal Structure
Depth, Sound Bends Sharply Up
 Layer Depth

Direction of Increasing
Temperature and Velocity
Depth Depth
Isothermal

Shadow
Zone
T C

Temperature
Cool

Isothermal Gradient Thermal Structure Sound Beam Splits When Temperature Is

Uniform At Surface and Cool At Bottom
 Sound Channel

Direction of Increasing
Temperature and Velocity
Depth Depth
Water Warm

T Shadow Zone
C

Water Cool

Negative Gradient Over Positive

 Convergence Zone (CZ)

3-4 deg

T
C
Bottom Bounce

>25 Deg.
 Possible Propagation Paths

Surface Direct Isovelocity

Sound Channel

Convergence
Zone
Bottom
Bounce
Questions?