SUG558GLS558

Dr Rosmadi Ghazali
GPR is a geophysical technique
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a geophysical technique
that is widely used to study the shallow subsurface in a
broad range of applications and environmental settings.
GPR measures changes in the electromagnetic properties
of subsurface features that cause reflection of transmitted
electromagnetic waves.
The technique emerged in the 1940s but was first used for
geotechnical issues in the 1970s (Ulriksen, 1982; Olhoeft,
1988). From the 1980s, when the first commercial systems
became available (Daniels et al., 1988), the use and variety
of applicationsof GPR have seen an advance that has
continued to the present day
GPR & Eletromagnatic Properties
GPR measures changes in the electromagnetic properties of
sediments that cause reflection of electromagnetic energy. These
changes in electromagnetic properties result primarilyfrom
changes in water content, governed in turn by grain-size and
porosity (Topp et al., 1980; Roth et al., 1990; Sutinen, 1992;
Huggenberger, 1993).
Since grain-size and porosity changes are related to depositional
history, a clear relationship can be expected between
sedimentary structures and electromagnetic properties, allowing
accurate identification of radar facies and sequence boundaries
(Gawthorpe et al., 1993). Most work with GPR has focused either
on geological and sedimentological reconnaissance (Jol and
Smith, 1991; Huggenberger, 1993; Beres et al., 1995; Bristow et al.,
1996; Asprion and Aigner, 1997;
Eletrical properties
Electric properties of materials are determined by electrical
conductivity, permittivity and permeability. The
permittivity is the most important parameter for GPR,
because at a high frequency any material behaves as
dielectric.
The electromagnetic wave behavior in subsurface material
is strongly dependent on its electrical conductivity, and the
electrical conductivity is normally controlled by water.
When a material is conductive, the electromagnetic field is
diffusive and cannot propagate as an electromagnetic wave.
When it is resistive, or dielectric, an electromagnetic field
can propagate as an electromagnetic wave.
Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic induction (EMI) sensors, which are
normally referred to metal detectors use this
frequency range, because penetration into the soil is
easy. However, GPR uses electromagnetic waves and its
interpretation is easier because the diffusion effect is
less.
When we use higher frequencies, any material behaves
as dielectric because the displacement current
dominates the conducting current, and the
electromagnetic field propagates as a wave, although
the attenuation gets higher.
Velocity and reflectivity
GPR measures the reflected electromagnetic wave
from the subsurface structure. The velocity and
reflectivity of the electromagnetic wave in soil is
characterized by the dielectric constant (permittivity)
of the soil. When the dielectric constant of the soil is r
r , the velocity in this material is given by
Medium Time-to-Depth Conversion, (two-
way travel-time)
Air 6.6 nanoseconds/meter
Dry geological 12 - 20 ns/m
materials
Damp geological 20-35 ns/m
materials
Water 60,000 ns/m
The depth of the reflecting object
GPR transmits a pulsed electromagnetic wave from a
transmitting antenna located on the ground surface
and signals are received by a receiving antenna, on the
ground surface. When the electromagnetic wave
velocity v is known, measuring the travel time (s), we
can estimate the depth of the reflecting object d (m) as
follows
High and low frequency
GPR works best in dry coarse-grained materials like sand
and gravel. It works poorly in moist fine-grained
sediments. Penetration in course grained sediments may
be as much as 20 m and as little as 2 m in fine-grained
materials.
Usually GPR can be used with several antennae sizes
that produce waves of different frequencies. High
frequency antennas (200 to 400 MHz) produce the
highest resolution images, but penetrate only to shallow
depths because waves are quickly attenuated. Low
frequency (80 MHz) antennae produce poorer resolution
images, but can penetrate more deeply into the
subsurface.
Inhomogeneous material
The travel time is defined as the time from the being
transmitted to signal and the time signal is received, which
corresponds to the propagation time from the reflecting
object. The reflection occurs, when the electromagnetic
wave encounters any electrically inhomogeneous material.
The most significant electrically inhomogeneous material
is metal.
Any buried metallic material such as pipes and cables are
quite easily detected by GPR. However, it is very important
to note that even an insulating material can be an
electrically inhomogeneous material. Insulating material is
referred to as dielectric material, and its characteristics are
defined by the dielectric constant. The dielectric constant
is also called permittivity.
Wave length
Whats the wavelength of the signal at 100 MHz?
Velocity = distance / time
Wavelength = distance / cycle
Frequency = cycles / time

Wavelength = velocity / frequency

= 3*108 m/sec / 108 cycles/sec = 3 meters
Data collection
In order to generate an "image" of a buried object , a
GPR profile must be obtained. A GPR profile is generated
when the antenna is moved along the surface. This can
be done by hand, by vehicle, or even by air.
The radar unit emits and receives reflected signals up to
a thousand times per second. As a result, not only do the
relative depths and "strengths" of the targets appear, but
the image or shape of the target is "seen" on the monitor.
 The waves reflect off the subsurface
interfaces as if they are mirror-like. Because
of this, the image produced will not be a
direct replica of the subsurface sloping
reflectors will appear to slope less than they
really do, and point or circular reflectors will
appear as hyperbolas.

assumed path actual path

depth
recorded
reflection
Reflection of electromagnetic
GPR measures changes in the electromagnetic properties
of sediments that cause reflection of electromagnetic
energy. These changes in electromagnetic properties result
primarily from changes in water content, governed in turn
by grain-size and porosity (Topp et al., 1980;Roth et al.,
1990; Sutinen, 1992; Huggenberger, 1993).
Since grain-size and porosity changes are related to
depositional history, a clear relationship can be expected
between sedimentary structures and electromagnetic
properties, allowing accurate identification of radar facies
and sequence boundaries (Gawthorpe et al., 1993).
Time-domain reflectometry (TDR),
Time-domain reflectometry (TDR), a technique well
known in soil sciences(Topp et al., 1982; Heimovaara et
al., 1995), was used to correlate GPR data with
subsurface information by measuring electromagnetic
properties of sediment at small intervals along vertical
sections in a quarry.
TDR measures the propagation velocity of an
electromagnetic wave along a steel-rod probe that is
pushed into the sediment, and is best applied in
unconsolidatedsand-sized and finer sediments.
Propagation and reflection
The techniques of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and time-
domain reflectometry (TDR) are based on propagation and
reflection of electromagnetic energy in the subsurface. The
(frequency-dependent) properties that control the behavior of
electromagnetic energy in a medium are dielectric permittivity
(), where = 0r, electrical conductivity (), and magnetic
permeability(), where = 0r (Von Hippel, 1954).
Here, 0 is the permittivity of vacuum(8.85419 1012 Fm1), r is
the relative permittivity, 0 is the magnetic permeability of
vacuum(4107 Hm1), and r is the relative magnetic
permeability. Together, these propertiesdefine the impedance (Z)
of the medium for harmonic electromagnetic waves with exp(
jt)dependence (Brewster and Annan, 1994; Fokkema et al.,
2001):
Beam at 45
The pulse has to travel through the substrate
before it gets to the reflector, and again through
the substrate to get to the receiver. Anything in
the substrate that may block the beam will affect
the data. Because the beam is a 45 cone,
reflectors angled at greater than 45 cannot be
seen. Objects within the matrix, such a pipeline
or re-bar, show up quite clearly as hyperbolas
with amplitudes depending on their conductivity
contrast.
Site accessibility
An obvious problem with GPR data acquisition is site
accessibility. Since the GPR antenna has to be moved
over the area to be investigated, the search area has to
be physically accessible. Heavily wooded sites or areas
containing cars, debris piles, sharp inclines, etc. all limit
the accessibility of GPR data acquisition. A good analogy
when considering the accessibility of a GPR investigation
(for most applications) is to use Geo-Graf's rule of thumb,
" The desired search area has to be clear enough so that
you could push a shopping cart through it."
 In addition to the medium through which the GPR pulse
travels, the frequency of the wave is a contributing factor
in depth of GPR signal penetration. Typically, within the
range of GPR antenna frequencies, the lower the
frequency of the pulse, the deeper the signal penetration,
but at the "cost" of data image resolution. Conversely, the
higher the frequency, the greater the image resolution,
but at the "cost" of signal penetration.
 Because the propagation of electromagnetic energy at
radar frequencies is controlled by dielectric properties in
geologic materials, the method is sensitive to changes in
dielectric permittivity of the bulk material. The dielectric
permittivity of a material is strongly related to its
resistivity. The higher the resistivity, the higher the
dielectric permittivity, and the farther an electro-magnetic
wave will propagate through that material without
absorption.
Depth of Investigation
Depth of Investigation varies from less than a
meter to over 5,400 meters, depending upon
material properties. Detectability of a subsurface
feature depends upon contrast in electrical and
magnetic properties, and the geometric
relationship with the antenna. Quantitative
interpretation through modeling can derive from
ground penetrating radar data such information as
depth, orientation, size and shape of buried
objects, density and water content of soils, and
much more.
Reflectance of wave
Theory of reflectance
Part of the remaining energy, which enters the subsurface,
reflects at layers of changing electromagnetic wave
impedance and travels back to the receiver. The quantity of
energy received and the associated arrival time are stored
in the computer.
The lateral extent and morphology of reflectors can be
delineated by moving the portable equipment across the
surface. The resulting radar section, on which each
measurement point is represented by a trace, shows time
alongits vertical axis and position along its horizontal axis.
The velocity of radar waves in different layers can be
calculated through common-mid-point (CMP)
measurements (Arcone, 1984),allowing conversion of travel
time to actual depth.
Frequency and penetration
The electrical conductivity of a material influences
penetration depth as well as resolution. Low-conductivity
materials, such as unsaturated and coarse-grained
sediments, cause little attenuation and under ideal
circumstances, penetration is on the order of tens of
meters (Davis andAnnan, 1989).
However, wave velocity and length are highest in low-
conductivity materials, leading to a decrease in resolution .
Penetration depth and resolution are also influenced by
the GPR frequency used for measurement. Lower antenna
frequencies are favorable for penetration, but result in a
decrease in resolution.
Image resolution
Resolution is commonly assumed to be a quarter of the
GPR wave length, and ranges from about 2 cm for
saturated sands and 900-MHz antennas to almost 40
cm for dry sands and 100-MHz antennas
Diagram 1
Diagram2
Thank You