RADAR (MICROWAVE)

METHODS

Lecture 10
04/14/2021
RADAR stands
for Radio Detecting And
Ranging.
It is a method using
electromagnetic waves
for the examination of
structures and
determining the position
and velocity of objects.
▪ Introduction
▪ Physical basics
▪ Resolution and penetration
▪ Ground Penetrating Radar
-Fundamental principle
-Equipment for the GPR Technique
-Application of GPR Techniques
-Accuracy and interpretation of GPR
-Advantages and Limitations of GPR Techniques
RADAR was developed at the beginning
of the 20th century

First, it was developed for military and

marine to determine the distance of
objects.

RADAR systems send an energy pulse

at high frequencies via an antenna.
A computer records the intensity and
the required time of the reflected
signal.

In geoscientific field, RADAR is used as Ground Penetrating Radar

(GPR) or electromagnetic reflection measurement (EMR).
 Radar sensors
Radar sensors are usually divided into two groups
according to their modes of operation.
▪ active systems:
- radar imaging systems (Radar = Radio Detection And
Ranging)
- scatterometers
- altimeters
▪ passive systems:
- microwave radiometers
The radar transmits a focused pulse of microwave energy (yup, just like a
microwave oven or a cell phone, but stronger) at an object, most likely a
cloud.

Radar can measure precipitation size, quantity, speed and direction of

movement, within about 100 mile radius of its location.
1. Reflection of electromagnetic
waves.
2. Electromagnetic energy travels
through air at a constant speed, at
approximately the speed of light.

3. This energy normally travels through space in a straight line, and will vary only
slightly because of atmospheric and weather conditions. By using of special radar
antennas this energy can be focused into a desired direction.
The most commonly used radar waves have wavelengths between about
1 centimeter (30 GHz) to about 1 meter (300 MHz), but there are some
radars using much larger wavelengths (up to about 50 meters) and much
smaller wavelengths (well under a millimeter).
Laser range-finders used for surveying are a kind of radar, and use
infrared or optical frequencies — the wavelength is on the order of 1
micron (a thousandth of a millimeter). GPR can be thought of as a kind of
radar; the wavelength of GPR is around 20 cm.
▪ Resolution

The resolution of a radar measurement is divided into horizontal and vertical

resolution. If there is a good resolution in the horizontal direction, then two
objects closed together lying (horizontal) can well differentiated. If the
horizontal resolution is low, two objects cannot be perceived as separate. The
resolution depends on the wavelength λ. resolution
= measuring depth
For the vertical resolution especially the permittivity εR, a material-specific
characteristic value, is crucial. Is this high, resolution is good.

▪ Penetration

GPR is applicable with different

frequencies.

The higher the used frequency, the better

the horizontal resolution is and the lower is
the penetration depth. Particularly large
penetration depths can be achieved when
the underground badly conducts (less
damping).
▪ Fundamental Principle
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a
non-destructive technique with a wide
range of potential applications in the
testing of concrete.
GPR is the electromagnetic analogue of
sonic and ultrasonic pulse echo
methods.
It is based on the propagation of
electromagnetic energy through
materials of different dielectric
constants.
▪ determining the thickness and structure of glaciers
▪ archeological investigations
▪ the location of buried objects eg bodies
▪ locating ice in permafrost
▪ finding sewer lines and buried cables
▪ measuring the thickness of sea ice
▪ profiling the bottom of lakes and rivers
▪ examining the subsurface of the moon
▪ detecting buried containerized hazardous waste
▪ measuring scouring around bridge foundations.
1. Transmitter Antenna

2. Receiver Antenna

3. The Control unit

4. Display unit Display continuous

cross sectional profile or record of
subsurface features to operator.

5. Power unit provide power to all

GPR system to active work

6. Software's RADAN GPRmax

GPRslice
The radar signal is typically amplified with a time varying function.
Radargrams are visualizations of radar signals collected over time.
The amplitude is plotted as a colour-coded bar along the Y axis, with X axis
is the time axis and being advanced by trigger signals from a wheel
attached to the antenna box. If the wheel is not moved and the antenna is
moved with constant speed, the radargram represents the signal pattern
measured along this line.
The most common mode of operation of GPR is the common-offset mode
where the receiver and transmitter antennas are maintained at a fixed
separation distance and moved along a line to produce a profile.

GPR has some unusual characteristics.

The transmitted pulse is very short
which allows for accurate
measurement of distances from the
antennas on the surface to the sub-
surface targets.
There are a number of factors to be taken into account when interpreting
radar data and signals:
➢ hyperbolic shapes typically represent a point reflector
➢ the diameter of cylindrical objects ranging from rebars to metallic oil
drums cannot be determined from radargrams
➢ radar wave velocity reduces when travelling through wet concrete
➢ radar waves are more rapidly attenuated when travelling through wet
concrete
➢ radar waves cannot penetrate conductors such as: metals, clays, salt water,
e.g. sea water
➢ radar antennas cannot identify objects in the near field which are closer
to the surface than λ/3, where
Velocity(v) = frequency(f) × wavelength(λ)
Therefore, λ = v/f.
Advantages of GPR

❖ high speed recording (8km/hr)

❖ Able to detect voids and trenches
❖Able to determine depths and lengths of targets
❖Colors also improve data quality
❖Easy to handle
❖ Changeable frequency (1 mhz 5 ghz)
❖ Real time display unit represent cross sectional profile
❖ Used in lot of applications
Disadvantages of GPR

❖Higher frequencies do not penetrate as far as lower

frequencies (penetration is limited )
❖ Doesn't work well in clay
❖ Terrain must be flat and even
❖ Interpretation of radargrams is generally complex
❖ Cellular telephones, two-way radios, television, and radio and
microwave transmitters may cause noise on GPR record
❖Highly expensive survey method
Radar uses pulsed microwaves, which interact with water.
Although the emitted energy is much too low to cause any
harm to humans, it is advisable not to point the antenna at
humans when operating the system.
Also, interference with mobile telephones may occur when
antennas are not coupled to the surface of the concrete or
the ground.
▪ Detection of underground
utilities

There are many kinds of public

utilities such as water pipes, gas
pipes, communication ducts,
sewerage boxes, etc. which lie
beneath footpaths and roadways
and which have to be detected from
time to time to carry out
maintenance work.
GPR can be used to locate such
services. 225, 450 and 900 MHz
antennas have been used
depending on the size of service to
be found and the depth below the
surface.
▪Inspection of tunnel lining

GPR can provide information on:

✓concrete lining thickness and the variation in

thickness
✓location of defective zones in the concrete lining,
e.g. cavities, water leakage, fractured zones
✓location of steel supports (rock bolts, steel ribs)
and their omission
✓depth, spacing and omission of reinforcing steel
✓interface between the concrete lining and rock
mass
✓homogeneity of the concrete.
▪ Detection of delamination in concrete
bridge decks

A major problem with the reinforced concrete bridge

decks located in coastal areas, or areas where de-icing
salts are used on roadways during winter, is the
premature deterioration of concrete.
The simplest method to detect delamination in concrete
involves sounding the concrete with a hammer or heavy
chains, which produces a characteristic hollow sound
when delamination is present.
Although the method is effective, it is adversely affected
by the presence of traffic noise. Since sounding is a
contact method, its use requires closure of traffic lanes,
which is often costly and undesirable. Because of the
need for an alternative to the sounding method, the use
of non-contact and non-destructive methods such as
infrared thermography and radar have been studied.
▪ Detection of delamination in concrete
bridge decks
Principle of radar operation on concrete bridge decks
When a beam of microwave energy is directed at a reinforced
concrete slab a portion of the energy is reflected from the surface of
the concrete and the remaining energy penetrates this interface.

Radar echoes from the cross-section of a reinforced concrete deck

 Test principles
Two types of antenna are typically used for bridge deck evaluation:

▪ Air coupled (0.2-0.5 m above the ground) horn antenna designed to operate at
1GHz or 2.5GHz. The higher the frequency the better the resolution, but the
lower the depth penetration. Thus a 2.5GHz antenna may give the required
resolution of say 3 cm but be restricted to a penetration of 35 cm. That may
mean that the bottom of the deck may not be identified.

▪ Bow tie antenna is normally close coupled to (i.e in contact with) the ground.
Very little energy would be transmitted into the bridge deck if a bow tie
antenna is held at more than λ/10 above the ground.
General conclusions
GPR has been developed into a sophisticated technique that can
provide detailed images of the near surface.
GPR is a time-dependent geophysical technique that can provide a 3-
D pseudo image of the subsurface, including the fourth dimension of
color.
It can also provide accurate information of depth estimation for many
common subsurface objects.
In the field of Earth science, it used to study bedrock, soils,
groundwater, and ice depth estimation.
GPR is an excellent tool for mapping underground surface of the earth
in recent geological and geophysical studies.