Chapter 28

Reproductive System

28-1
 Anatomy of Male
Reproductive System
• Scrotum
– 2 chambered sac that contains
testes; separated by raphe
– Dartos and cremaster
muscles help regulate
temperature
• Perineum
– Diamond-shaped areas
between thighs
– Divided into anterior
urogenital triangle (penis and
scrotum) and posterior anal
triangle

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Male Reproductive Structures

28-3
 Testes
• Located outside the body
cavity because sperm require
lower-than-body
temperature for development
• Testis serve as both
– Exocrine gland: sperm cells
are the secretion
– Endocrine: testosterone
• Coverings of testis
– Tunica vaginalis.
Originally peritoneum.
Serous membrane • Tubes through which sperm move
– Tunica albuginea: thick – Seminiferous tubules. Site of sperm
white connective tissue. production
Penetrates testis to divide it – Tubuli recti and rete testis.
into lobules. Within lobules
are seminiferous tubules Pathway to epididymis.
and interstitial (Leydig)
cells that secrete
testosterone.
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 Descent of Testes
• Descent
– Pass from abdominal cavity through inguinal canal to
scrotum
– Guided by fibromuscular gubernaculum
– Pass through inguinal rings , like a herniation.
• Cryptorchidism
– Failure of one or both of testes to descend into scrotum
– Prevents normal sperm development

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Descent of the Testes

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 Sperm Cell Development
• Spermatozoa produced in seminiferous tubules. At puberty,
GnRH secretion increases leading to increased LH and FSH
release. FSH levels promote sperm formation, FSH levels
promote interstitial cells to produce large amounts of
testosterone.
– Spermatogonia divide (mitosis) to form primary
spermatocytes and daughter spermatagonia
– Primary spermatocytes divide (first division of meiosis) to
form secondary spermatocytes
– Secondary spermatocytes divide (second division of meiosis)
to form spermatids
– Spermatids develop an acrosome and flagellum
– Sustentacular (Sertoli, nurse) cells nourish sperm cells and
form a blood-testis barrier and produce hormones
– Interstitial cells produce testosterone. Sustentacular cells
convert it to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and estrogen.
Probably active hormones that cause sperm formation 28-7
Spermatogenesis

28-8
 Ducts
• Efferent ductules lead out of testis
• Epididymis
– Site of sperm cell maturation
– Takes minimum of 1-2 days
– Head, body, tail
– Stereocilia: in pseudostratified columnar epithelium; increase surface area to
facilitate absorption of fluid from lumen of the duct
• Ductus deferens or vas deferens. Passes from epididymis into abdominal
cavity
– Ductus, testicular artery and venous plexus, lymphatic vessels, nerves, fibrous
remains of process vaginalis (peritoneum) form the spermatic cord
– Distal end of ductus deferens is enlarged as ampulla
– Wall of ductus deferens has smooth muscle that exhibits peristalsis during
ejaculation.
• Ejaculatory duct
– Joining of ductus deferens and seminal vesicle
– End at urethra within prostate gland

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Urethra
• Extends from urinary bladder to
distal end of penis
• Passageway for urine and male
reproductive fluids
• Three parts
– Prostatic urethra. Connected to
bladder, passes through
prostate.15-30 ducts from prostate
empty into prostatic urethra.
– Membranous urethra. Extends
through perineum (muscular floor
of pelvis; urogenital diaphragm)
– Spongy or penile urethra. Passes
through the penis. Several minute
mucus-secreting urethral glands
empty into spongy urethra 28-10
Penis
• Functions: urination, serves as
vehicle for injecting sperm into
vagina: erection
• Three columns of erectile tissue
that engorge with blood
– Corpora cavernosa (2). Expanded
at base to form crus. Attached by
ligaments to coxae
– Corpus spongiosum (1)
surrounding spongy urethra. Forms
the bulb
– Crura and bulb = root of penis
• Glans penis: enlargement of
corpus spongiosum
– Prepuce or foreskin covers glans
penis. Circumcision: surgical
removal
• External urethra orifice

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 Accessory Glands
• Seminal vesicles
– Empty into ejaculatory duct
– Produce about 60% of semen
– Secretion contains fibrinogen
– High pH
• Prostate gland
– Produces about 30% of semen
– Thin, milky secretion, high pH
– Contain clotting factors, and fibrinolysin
• Bulbourethral glands
– Contribute about 5% to semen
– Mucous secretion. Just before ejaculation
– Helps neutralize pH of female vagina 28-12
 Semen
• Secretions of all three accessory glands plus
sperm cells referred to as semen.
• Urethral mucosa produces mucus
• Emission: discharge of semen into prostatic
urethra
• Ejaculation: forceful expulsion of semen
from urethra. Caused by peristalsis
• Temporary coagulation as fibrinogen
becomes fibrin then fibrinolysin breaks up
the coagulation. Sperm swim up vagina
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Regulation of Reproductive
Hormones in Males

28-14
 Puberty
• Before birth, placenta secretes human chorionic
gonadotropin hormone which stimulates secretion of
testosterone by fetal testes
• From birth to puberty, no stimulation of secretion of
testosterone
• Puberty: age at which individuals become capable of sexual
reproduction
– Previous to puberty: small amounts of testosterone from adrenal gland
inhibits GnRH
– At puberty, pituitary becomes less sensitive to testosterone inhibition.
Amount of GnRH increases, amount of LH and FSH increases
– Elevated FSH causes sperm cell formation
– Elevated LH causes interstitial cells to secrete larger amounts of
testosterone

28-15
 Testosterone
• Most from interstitial cells of testes with small
amounts from adrenal glands and sustentacular cells
• Causes enlargement and differentiation of male
genitals and reproductive duct system, necessary for
sperm cell formation, required for descent of testes,
hair growth on certain parts of the body, skin is
rougher and coarser, quantity of melanin increases,
increases rate of secretion of sebaceous glands,
hypertrophy of larynx, increases metabolic rate,
increases red blood cell count, increases protein
synthesis, rapid bone growth, causes closure of
epiphyseal plates
28-16
 Male Sexual Behavior and
the Male Sex Act
• Male sexual behavior: testosterone required
to initiate and maintain
• Male sex act
– Complex series of reflexes that result in
erection of penis, secretion of mucus into
urethra, emission, ejaculation
– Sensations result in orgasm associated with
ejaculation and then resolution
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 Emission and Ejaculation
• Emission: accumulation of sperm cells and secretions of
the prostate gland and seminal vesicles in the urethra
• Controlled by sympathetic centers in spinal cord
– Peristaltic contractions of reproductive ducts
– Seminal vesicles and prostate release secretions
• Accumulation in prostatic urethra sends sensory
information through pudendal nerve to spinal cord
• Sympathetic and somatic motor output
– Sympathetic: constriction of internal sphincter of urinary bladder
so semen and urine do not mix
– Somatic motor: to skeletal muscles, urogenital diaphragm and
base of penis causing rhythmic contractions that force semen out
of urethra: ejaculation
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 Anatomy of Female
Reproductive System

• Female reproductive organs

– Ovaries
– Uterine tubes
– Uterus
– Vagina
– External genital organs
– Mammary glands

28-19
Female Pelvis

28-20
 Ligaments and Ovaries
• Broad ligament: extension of peritoneum, spread out on both sides of uterus.
Ovaries and uterine tubes attached as well

• Ligaments of ovaries
– Mesovarium: peritoneal
fold attaches ovary to
posterior surface of
broad ligament
– Suspensory ligament:
from mesovarium to
body wall. Contains
ovarian arteries, veins,
and nerves
– Ovarian ligament: from
ovary to superior margin
of uterus. Ovarian
arteries, veins and nerves
enter ovary through this
ligament
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Ovary Histology
• Outermost covering: ovarian
(germinal) epithelium:
visceral peritoneum
• Tunica albuginea: capsule of
dense fibrous connective
tissue
• Ovary itself
– Cortex: outer, dense. Contains
follicles with oocytes
– Medulla: inner, looser.
Contains blood vessels, nerves,
lymphatic vessels
– Stroma: connective tissue of
the ovary

28-22
Maturation and Fertilization of Oocyte
• Oogenesis is the production of a secondary
oocyte in ovaries
• Oogonia are cells from which oocytes
develop. The oogonia divide by mitosis to
produce other oogonia and primary oocytes.
• Five million oocytes produced by the 4th
month of prenatal life. About 2 million begin
first meiotic division but stop at prophase. All
remain at this state until puberty.
• Primary oocytes are surrounded by granulosa
cells and called a primordial follicle
• Primordial follicle becomes a primary
follicle when oocyte and granular cells
enlarge
• Primary follicle becomes secondary follicle
and enlarges to form mature or Graafian
follicle
– Usually only one is ovulated, others
degenerate

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Maturation and Fertilization of Oocyte

28-24
Ovulation, Fertilization, Follicle Fate
• Ovulation: release of a secondary oocyte from an
ovary. Unlike spermatogenesis, division of
cytoplasm during meiosis is uneven and polar
bodies are very small, oocyte very large
• Graafian follicle become corpus luteum
• Fertilization: begins when a sperm cell binds the
plasma membrane of secondary oocytes and
penetrates into cytoplasm.
• Secondary oocyte completes meiosis II forming
one polar body. Fertilized egg now a zygote
• Fate of corpus luteum
– If fertilization occurs, corpus luteum persists
– If no fertilization, becomes corpus albicans

28-25
Follicle Development

28-26
Uterine (Fallopian) Tubes
• Mesosalpinx: part of broad ligament
directly associated with uterine tube
• Open directly into peritoneal cavity to
receive oocyte from ovary
• Transport oocyte or zygote from ovary to
uterus
• Fimbriae: long thin processes that extend
from the infundibulum. Inner surface is
ciliated. Infundibulum is open to
peritoneal cavity
• Ampulla: widest part, where fertilization
occurs
• Three layers: outer serosa, middle
muscular layer and inner mucosa.
Mucosa: simple ciliated columnar
epithelium with longitudinal folds
– Provides nutrients for
oocyte/embryonic mass
– Cilia moves fluid and
oocyte/embryonic mass through the
tube toward uterus 28-27
 Uterus
• Parts: body, isthmus, cervix, and fundus
• Ligaments: broad, round, uterosacral
– Round: from uterus through inguinal canals to labia majora
– Uterosacral: attach lateral wall of uterus to sacrum
• Composed of 3 layers
– Perimetrium: Serous membrane
– Myometrium: Smooth muscle
– Endometrium: Mucous membrane
• Simple tubular glands
• Functional layer: innermost. Replaced monthly during menstrual cycle
• Basal layer: deepest
• Cervix. More rigid and less contractile than rest of uterus
– Cervical canal. Lined with mucous glands. Mucous plug
except near ovulation when consistency of secretion changes to
seromucous.
28-28
 Vagina

• Female organ of copulation

• Allows menstrual flow and childbirth
• Hymen covers the vaginal opening or orifice
• Muscular walls with mucous membrane lining
(moist stratified squamous epithelium).
• Longitudinal columns and transverse rugae
• Fornix: superior domed portion attached to sides
of cervix
28-29
Female External Genitalia
• Vulva or pudendum or external
female genitalia
– Vestibule: space
• Labia minora: form
borders on sides
• Clitoris: erectile structure
– Corpora cavernosa:
expanded at bases to
form crus of the
clitoris
– Corpora spongiosa
– Labia majora: unite to form
mons pubis
– Vaginal orifice: in lateral
margins, erectile tissue called
bulb of the vestibule
(homologous to corpus
spongiosum of male)
28-30
 Female External Genitalia
• Within vestibule, glands that
produce fluid to moisten
– Greater vestibular gland
– Lesser vestibular glands
– Paraurethral glands
• Labia majora: rounded folds of
skin on either side of labia minora.
Conceal contents of pudenda
– Medial surfaces covered with
numerous sebaceous and sweat glands
– Pudendal cleft: space between labia
majora
• Mons pubis: anteriorly labia
majora merge in an elevated area
over the symphysis pubis
28-31
Perineum

28-32
Mammary Glands
• Organs of milk
production
located within
mammae or
breasts
– Consist of
glandular lobes
and adipose
tissue
– Cooper’s
ligaments
support the
breasts
28-33
 Menstrual Cycle
• Puberty
– Begins with menarche (first
episode of menstrual bleeding)
– Begins when GnRH levels increase
• Menstrual Cycle
– About 28 days long
– Phases
• Menses
• Proliferative or follicular
phase (functional layer
proliferates; follicle matures)
• Secretory or luteal phase
(maturation and secretion of
uterine glands; presence of
corpus luteum)
• Menses
– Amenorrhea: absence of a
menstrual cycle
– Menopause: cessation of menstrual
cycles

28-34
Hormone Regulation during Menstrual Cycle

28-35
Uterine Cycle

28-36
Uterine Cycle

28-37
 Female Sexual Behavior
and Sex Act
• Female sex act
• Female sexual behavior – Parasympathetic
– Depends on hormones: stimulation
androgens and steroids • Blood engorgement in
clitoris and around
– Depends on vaginal opening
psychological factors • Erect nipples
• Mucous-like fluid
extruded into vagina and
through wall
– Orgasm not necessary
for fertilization to occur

28-38
• Female fertility
– Sperm ejaculated into vagina during
copulation and transported through
cervix and uterine tubes to ampulla
– Sperm cells undergo capacitation,
enabling them to release acrosomal
enzymes to digest away follicular cells
• Pregnancy
– Oocyte can be fertilized up to 24 hours
after ovulation
– Sperm cells can be viable for up to 6
days in female tract
– Ectopic pregnancy: Implantation
occurs anywhere other than uterine
cavity
• Fertilization. Occurs in uterine tube.
Multiple mitoses occur after union of
oocyte and sperm nuclei, (pronuclei)
forming an embryo. Outer layer of
embryonic mass is the trophoblast. It
secretes proteolytic enzymes to digest the
thickened endometrium. Implantation.
Trophoblast also secretes HCG.
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Changes in Hormones During Pregnancy

28-40
 Menopause
• 40-50 years old. Menstrual periods become less
regular, ovulation stops. Female climacteric
(perimenopause)
• Cessation of menstrual cycles = menopause.
• LH and FSH elevated, but the few remaining
follicles become insensitive to LH and FSH.
• Ovaries stop producing estrogen and progesterone.
• Symptoms: hot flashes, irritability, night sweats,
fatigue, anxiety, occasionally severe emotional
disturbances.
28-41
28-42
 Effects of Aging: Males
• In some, testes decrease in size
• Decrease in number of interstitial cells, thinning of
walls of seminiferous tubules
• Decrease in rate of sperm cell production
• Prostate: decrease in blood flow, increase in
thickness of epithelial lining, decrease in functional
smooth muscle cells. Possibly benign prostatic
hypertrophy
• Impotence or decrease in sexual
performance/activity
28-43
 Effects of Aging: Females
• Menopause
• Uterine position changes and can lead to prolapse
• Uterus decreases 50% in size within 15 years after
menopause
• Vaginal wall: thinner, less elastic, less lubrication.
Increased incidence of vaginal infections
• Sexual excitement requires greater time to develop,
peak is lower, return to resting state is quicker
• Increased risk of breast, endometrial, cervical, and
ovarian cancer

28-44