Chapter 5 Design for Different

Types of Loading
Part 1 Types of stress and loading, stress
ratio, endurance strength, design factors
Part 2 Failure theories

E. R. Evans, Jr./ R. Michael

MET 210W
 Static Load

F and P are applied and remain constant

Stress

Stress Ratio, R = 1.0

Time
 Dynamic Stress:
Loads that vary during normal service of the
product produce dynamic stress.
Dynamic stress can be cyclic or random.
High cycle fatigue part subject to millions of
stress cycles.

Examples: Parts subject to dynamic stress?

Cyclic loads produce cyclic stress which can lead to mechanical fatigue
failure:

Mechanical Fatigue = The progressive and localized structural

damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic
loading. The cyclic stress is well below tensile, Su and yield, Sy ,
strengths!
 Types of Cyclic Stress:

1. Repeated and Reversed (i.e. RR Moore,

rotating shafts, etc.) mean stress = 0.

2. Fluctuating stress (mean stress not zero):

a. Tensile mean stress (can cycle between
tension and compression or all tension)
b. Compressive mean stress (can cycle
between tension and compression or all
compression)
c. Repeated, one-direction stress
 Definitions:
max min
a = Alternating stress
2 2

max min
m = Mean stress
2

min
R = R value:

max R = 0, repeated and one direction, i.e.

stress cycles from 0 to max value.
R =-1, Fully reversed (R-R Moore)
 1.Repeated & Reversed Stress
an element subjected to a repeated and
alternating tensile and compressive stresses.

Continuous total load reversal over time

Demo: Switch to Excel

1.Repeated and Reversed Stress

min
R 1
max
The average or mean stress is zero.
 Cyclic loading. (a) Very low amplitude acoustic vibration. (b) High-cycle fatigue: cycling well
below general yield, y. (c) Low cycle fatigue: cycling abovegeneral yield (but below the tensile strength ts).

All stresses above are repeated and reversed (R = -1)

 Fatigue Testing
Bending tests
R-R More = Spinning bending elements most
common.
Fast, cost effective, pure bending stress
See: http://www.instron.co.uk/wa/solutions/rotating_beam_fatigue.aspx
 Fatigue Testing
Bending tests
Sontag = Constant stress cantilever beams
Good for flat stock (sheets)
Get shear stress in addition to bending stress.

Top View

Specimen
 Fatigue Testing Test Data
Stress, (ksi)

Number of Cycles to Failure, N

Data from R. B. Englund, 2/5/93
 Endurance
Endurance strength is the stress level that a
material can survive for a given number of load
cycles.
Endurance limit is the stress level that a
material can survive for an infinite number of
load cycles.
Estimate for Wrought Steel:
Endurance Strength = 0.50(Su)

Most nonferrous metals (aluminum) do not

have an endurance limit.
Representative Endurance Strengths

Estimated endurance strength of steel is about 0.50 * Su

 2. Fluctuating Stress
When an element experiences alternating
stress, but the mean stress is NOT zero.

Load varies between P and Q over time

 2.Fluctuating Stress Example
Bending of Rocker Arm
Valve Spring Force
Valve Open

Valve
Closed

Tension in Valve Stem

Valve
Valve Spring Force
Closed

Valve
RBE
Open
2/1/91

Adapted from R. B. Englund

Types of Fluctuating Stress:
 Tensile Stress w/ Tensile Mean
Case 1:
max min
a
2

max min
m
2
 Partially Reversed w/ Tensile Mean
Case 2:
max min
a
2

max min
m
2

max is tensile and min is compressive

Partially Reversed w/ Compressive Mean
Case 3:
max min
a
2

max min
m
2

max is tensile and min is compressive

Compressive Stress w/ Compressive Mean
Case 4:
max min
a
2

max min
m
2

max and min are both compressive

 Repeated One Direction Stress
Case 5:
 Example of the Effect of Stress Ratio
on Endurance Strength of a Material

Mott, Fig. 5-11, Pg. 180

 Stages of Fatigue:
1. Micro structural changes nucleation of
permanent damage (mm)
2. Creation of microscopic cracks (mm)
3. Growth and coalescence of cracks into
dominant crack (striations).
4. Stable crack growth (Beach marks)
5. Instability and rapid failure (area goes down,
stress goes up eventually exceeding tensile
strength).
 Stages of Fatigue:
1. Micro structural changes nucleation of
permanent damage (mm)
2. Creation of microscopic cracks (mm)

These two steps = crack initiation = 99%

of the total life!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Key: prevent cracks from forming at
surface!!!!!!!!!!
 B
Instantaneuos
Fast Fracture!

A
Crack
nucleation
and Growth
The endurance limit plotted against the tensile strength. Almost all materials
fail in fatigue at stresses well below the tensile strength.
 Design Factor
Analysis Failure Strength
Factor of Safety
Applied Stress
Sy
Example : N

Design
Failure Strength
Allowable Stress
Design Factor
Sy
Example : ALLOW
N
 Factors Effecting Design Factor
Application
Environment
Loads
Types of Stresses
Material
Confidence
 Factors Effecting Design Factor
Application How many will be produced?
Environment What manufacturing methods will be
Loads used?
Types of Stresses What are the consequences of
Material failure?
Confidence Danger to people
Cost
Size and weight important?
What is the life of the component?
Justify design expense?
 Factors Effecting Design Factor
Application Temperature range.
Environment Exposure to electrical voltage or
Loads current.
Types of Stresses Susceptible to corrosion
Material
Is noise control important?
Confidence
Is vibration control important?
Will the component be protected?
Guard
Housing
 Factors Effecting Design Factor
Application Nature of the load considering all
Environment modes of operation:
Startup, shutdown, normal
Loads operation, any foreseeable
Types of Stresses overloads
Material
Load characteristic
Confidence Static, repeated & reversed,
fluctuating, shock or impact
Variations of loads over time.
Magnitudes
Maximum, minimum, mean
 Factors Effecting Design Factor
Application What kind of stress?
Environment Direct tension or compression
Loads Direct shear
Bending
Types of Stresses Torsional shear
Material
Application
Confidence Uniaxial
Biaxial
Triaxial
 Factors Effecting Design Factor
Application Material properties
Environment
Ultimate strength, yield strength,
Loads endurance strength,
Types of Stresses
Ductility
Material Ductile: %E 5%
Confidence Brittle: %E < 5%
Ductile materials are preferred for
fatigue, shock or impact loads.
 Factors Effecting Design Factor
Application Reliability of data for
Environment Loads
Loads Material properties
Types of Stresses Stress calculations
Material How good is manufacturing quality
control
Confidence
Will subsequent handling, use and
environmental conditions affect the
safety or life of the component?
Recommended Design Factors

Confidence in material
properties, analysis,
loads, the environment,
etc.

See Mott,
pages 185 - 186
Design Factor