dr. Susianti, M.

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 GENERAL FEATURES OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system includes the lungs,

airways (pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi) and associated structures.
Specialized for gaseous exchange between
blood and air, including the uptake of
oxygen and release of carbon dioxide.
 A. COMPONENTS OF RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
Functionally divisible into 3 major part:
1. Ventilating mechanism
Creates pressure differences that move
air into (inspiration) and out of
(expiration) the lungs.
Includes:diaphragm, rib cage, intercostal
muscles, abdominal muscles lower the
floor of the thorac cavity
2. Conducting Portion
The wall is specialized to carry air to and
from the site of gas exchange
Conditioning the air, warming,
moistening, and cleaning it to enhance
gas exchange
Includes: nasal cavity, nasopharynx,
larynx, trache, bronchi, bronchioles,
terminal bronchioles
3. Respiratory portion
Distinguished by alveoli:small, saccular
structures, whose thin walls enable the
gas exchange between air and blood.
Bronchial tree: respiratory brochioles,
alveolar ducts, and atrial and alveolar
sacs
Structure of the Respiratory System
 B. WALL STRUCTURE

Tube lining epithelium derives from

endoderm
Wall layers: epithelium, lamina propria,
smooth muscles, adventitia
Each layer undergoes gradual changes:
nasal cavity alveoli
1. Respiratory epithelium
General features: Most epithelium is
ciliated pseudostratified collumnar with
goblet cells
Epithelial cell types:
Ciliated columnar cell
Mucous goblet
Brush cells
Small granule cells
2. Lamina Propria
Loose connective tissue
Skeletal connective tissue, gradually
decreases-disappears at the level of the
bronchioles.
3. Smooth Muscle
Begin in the trachea, joins the open ends
of the tracheal cartilages
Gradually decrease-disappears at the
level of the alveolar ducts
 NASAL CAVITY

The cavity is divided by the nasal septum

into 2 bilaterally symmetric cavities, open
through the nares (nostrils)
Each cavity consists of:
Vestibule
Nasal fossa
Nasal Mucosa
 A. VESTIBULE

Smaller, wider, and more anterior chamber,

lies behind nares
Medial septum and lateral walls are
supported by cartilage, and the epithelial
lining is a continuation of the epidermis
(sebaceous and sweat glands, thick short
hairs called vibrissae)
Deeper: nonkeratinized epithelium
respiratory epithelium
 B. NASAL FOSSA

Larger, narrower, and more posterior

Septum and lateral walls are lined by
respiratory epithelium
Supported by bone and contain mucous
glands and venous sinuses in the lamina
propria
Three curved bony shelves, termed
conchae (turbinate bones)
Venous plexuses (swell bodies)
Nasal Cavity
 PARANASAL SINUSES

They are dilated cavities in the frontal,

maxillary, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones
Thin respiratory epithelial, has few goblet
cells
Lamina propria contains a few small
mucous glands
 NASOPHARYNX
The upper part of pharynx
Single cavity overlying the soft
palate
Anteriorly: nassal fossae
Inferiorly: oral part of the
pharynx (oropharynx)
The wall lined by respiratory
epithelium are supported by
bone and skeletal muscle
 LARYNX

Lies in the neck

During swallowing, its opening is protected
by epiglottis
Its walls, supported by several laryngeal
cartilages in the lamina propria, contain
skeletal muscle and house the vocal
apparatus
 A. EPIGLOTTIS

The flap of the tissue extends toward the

oropharynx from the anterior border of the
larynx
Superior surface: Nonkeratinized stratified
squamous epithelium
Inferior surface: Respiratory epithelium
Lamina propria: A few mucous glands and
small plate of elastic cartilage
 B. LARYNGEAL CARTILAGES

Several frame the laryngeal lumen

The larger: Thyroid, cricoid, and the most of
the paired arytenoid cartilage are hyaline
The smaller: The paired of the cuneiform
and corniculate, the epiglottic, and the tips
of the arytenoids are elastic
 C. VOCAL APPARATUS
Two bilaterally symmetric pairs of mucosal folds
1. False vocal cords (Vestibular folds)
The upper
Covered by respiratory epithelium and contain
serous glands
2. True vocal cords
The lower
Covered by stratified squamous epithelium
2 major structure: vocal ligament and vocalis
muscle
 TRACHEA

Tube: 10 cm long, between larynx and

primary bronchi
Lined by respiratory epithelium
Lamina propria: mixed seromucous glands
Characteristic: 16-20 C-shape cartilage rings
Fibroelastic ligament
Smooth muscle bundle (trachealis muscle)
TRACHEA
Trachea
 BRONCHIAL TREE
A. PRIMARY BRONCHI
Two primary bronchi, entering each lung
Similar to the trachea, but cartilage rings
and spiral bands of smooth muscle
completely encircle their respective
lumens
Right primary bronchi: more vertical than
that of the left
Bronchus
Primary Bronchus
 B. SECONDARY BRONCHI

Lobar bronchi
Primary bronchus give rise:
Right primary bronchus: 3 secondary bronchi
Left primary bronchus: 2 secondary bronchi

Histologic structure= primary bronchi,

except that their supporting cartilages are
arranged as irregular plates or islands
 C. TERTIARY BRONCHI

Segmental bronchi
Supplies one bronchopulmonary segment
(pulmonary lobule)
Histologic appearance is identical to that
of secondary bronchi
Branch several times to form smaller
branches
Tertiary (Segmental) Bronchus
 D. BRONCHIOLES
Branches of the smallest bronchi
Largest bronchioles differ from the smallest
bronchi: absence of the cartilage and glands in
their walls
Large bronchioles:typical respiratory epithelium
Further: epithelial height and complexity
decrease to simple ciliated columnar or
cuboidal
Each bronchiole gives rise to 5-7 terminal
bronchiole
 Bronchiolus

Vein

M : Smooth muscle layer

Terminal bronchiole Respiratory
bronchiole

Alveolar walls
 E. TERMINAL BRONCHIOLES
The smallest components of the conducting
portion
Lined by ciliated cuboidal or columnar
epithelium, have few or no goblet cells
Lining also: dome-shaped cilia-free Clara
cells
Each terminal bronchiole branches to form
2 or more respiratory bronchioles
 F. RESPIRATORY BRONCHIOLES

The first part of respiratory portion

Lined by cuboidal epithelial
Interrupted by thin-walled saccular
evaginations called alveoli
As the alveoli increase in number, the cilia
decrease untill they disappear. Goblet cells
are absent
 G. ALVEOLAR DUCTS

The distal extensions of the respiratory

bronchiole where the alveoli are so dense
The alveolar duct can thus be likened to a
long hallway with so many doorways
leading to small rooms (alveoli) that the
hallway (alveolar duct) appears almost to
lack walls.
 H. ATRIA AND ALVEOLAR SACS

Atria: the distal termination of

alveolarducts
Long hallway (alveolar duct) leading to a
rounded foyer (atrium). The foyer has
small doorways leading to some small
Rooms (alveoli), but has 2 or more larger
doorways leading into short, dead-end
hallways (alveolar sacs)
Terminal Portion of the Respiratory Tree
 ALVEOLI
A. INTERALVEOLAR SEPTA
Specialized for gas exchange, are critical
to respiratory function.
Consist of 2 simple squamous epithelial
layers with the interstitium sandwiche
between them, that consist of continous
capillaries embedded in n elastic
connective tissue
Gas exchange: Between the air in the alveolar
lumen and the blood in the interstitial capillaries
1. Blood- air barrier
Structure that oxygen and CO2 must exchanged
0.1-0.5 m in thickness
Includes: - Pulmonary surfactant
- type I alveolar cells
- Basal laminae??
2. Alveolar Pores
Each septum may be interrupted by one or more
pores from 10-15 m in diameter
 B. ALVEOLAR CELL TYPES
1. Type I cells
Called type I alveolar cells, type I
pneumocytes,squamous alveolar cells
Squamous epithelial cells: 97% alveolar surface
Very thin (25 nm) gas permeable components

2. Type II cells
Called type II alveolar cells, type II pneumocytes,
great alveolar cells, alveolar septal cells
Are roughly cuboidal with round nuclei
Large (0.2 m) membrane-limited lamellar bodies
Secretes pilmonary surfactant
3. Alveolar macrophages
Called dust cells
Mononuclear phagocyte system on the surface of
the alveolar septa and in the intersitium
Alveoli
Three-dimensional schematic diagram of pulmonary alveoli showing the interalveolar
septum and its structure. Observe the capillaries, connective tissue, and macrophages.
These can also be seen in or passing into the alveolar lumens. Alveolar pores are
numerous. Type II cells are identified by their abundant apical microvilli. The alveoli
are lined by a continuous epithelial layer of Type I cells.
 C. PULMONARY SURFACTANT
Continously synthesized and secreted by
type II alveolar cells onto the alveolar
surface
2 Function:
Reduce surface tension in the alveoli
Have some bactericidal effects

2 layer:
Aqueous basal layer (hypophase)
Monomolecular fill of phospholipid (dipalmitoyl
lecithin)
 PULMONARY CIRCULATION

A. BLOOD SUPPLY
1. Functional circulation
a. Pulmonary arteries
b. Pulmonary veins

2. Systemic circulation
a. Bronchial arteries
b. Bronchial veins
 B. LYMPHATIC DRAINAGE

Divided into superficial and deep networks

Vessels of the superficial network which
have many valves, are found in the
visceral pleura
Lymphatic vessels are notably absent from
interalveolar septa
 INNERVATION

Autonomic motor and general sensory

nerves penetrate the pulmonary root
Sensory nerves: localized pain sensations,
monitor irritants in the airway and are
involved in the cough reflex
Parasymphatic motor fibers (branches of
vagus nerve ) stimulate bronchial
constriction, symphatic: bronchial dilation
 PLEURA
Serous membrane
2 layers:
Covering the lungs (visceral pleura)
Covering the internal wall of the thoracic
cavity (parietal pleura)
Consist of thin squamous mesothelium,
thin layer of connective tissue
Pleural cavity: between visceral and
parietal pleura, contain lubricating fluid
Visceral Pleura