Chapter 1

Chemical Foundations

Chemistry
and
The Scientific Method
Measurement

Quantitative observation consisting of two parts.

 number
 scale (unit)
Examples
 20 grams
 6.63 moles
 2.54 inches
 The System of Units

• SI
• Metric
• Engineering (English)
 Physical Name of Unit Abbreviation
Quantity
English Metric SI English Metric SI

Mass Pound Gram Kilogram lb g Kg

Length Foot Meter Meter ft m m

Time Second Second Second s s s

Temperature Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin oF oC K

Amount Mole Mole Mole mol mol mol

 Derived Units
• Area = Length × Length
Common units: (ft2, cm2, in2, m2, …)
• Volume = Length × Length × Length
Common units: (ft3, cm3, in3, m3, L, mL, gal)
Note:
in = inches = (1/12) ft
L = liters = (1/1000) m3
mL = (1/1000) L
gal = 3.785 liters
 Prefixes Used in the SI System
Prefixes are used to change the size of the unit.
You must memorize these prefixes!
 Examples
• How many millimeters (mm) are in one meter?

• How many micrograms (µg) are in one milligram

(mg)?

• How many picoseconds (ps) are in one

nanosecond (ns)?

• How many decimeters (dm) are in a kilometer

(km)?
 Uncertainty in Measurement

• A digit that must be estimated is called

uncertain.
• A measurement always has some degree of
uncertainty.
• Record the certain digits and the first
uncertain digit (the estimated number).
• Remember: The last digit in your
measurements must be an estimate.
 Measurement of Volume Using a Burette

The volume is read at the

bottom of the liquid curve
(meniscus).
Meniscus of the liquid occurs
at about 20.15 mL.

Certain digits: 20.15

Uncertain digit: 20.15

What is the volume reading
for this graduated cylinder?

•15 mL
•15.0 mL
•16 mL
•16.0 mL
What is the reading for this tape measure?

•6.6 cm
•6.65 cm
•6.7 cm
•6.650 cm
 Precision and Accuracy

Accuracy
• Agreement of a particular value with the true value.

Precision
• Degree of agreement among several measurements
of the same quantity.
Which of the following sets of data represents a precise set?

Set #1 Set #2 Set #3

27.85 g 27.81 g 22.00 g
25.85 g 27.55 g 19.95 g
22.22 g 27.21 g 20.91 g
20.87 g 26.99 g 21.01 g
29.54 g 26.54 g 21.91 g
35.16 g 28.01 g 22.25 g
21.12 g 28.15 g 19.15 g
Which of the following sets of data represents an accurate set?
True mass = 21.00 g

Set #1 Set #2 Set #3

27.85 g 27.81 g 22.00 g
25.85 g 27.55 g 19.95 g
22.22 g 27.21 g 20.91 g
20.87 g 26.99 g 21.01 g
29.54 g 26.54 g 21.91 g
35.16 g 28.01 g 22.25 g
21.12 g 28.15 g 19.15 g
Precision and Accuracy
 Rules for Counting Significant
Figures (sig figs)
1. Nonzero integers always count as
significant figures.
 3456 has 4 sig figs.

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2. Zeros

There are three classes of zeros:

a. Leading zeros - zeros that precede all

the nonzero digits. These zeros do
not count as significant figures.

0.048 has 2 sig figs.

b. Captive zeros - zeros between nonzero
digits. These zeros always count as
significant figures.

 16.07 has 4 sig figs.

c. Trailing zeros - zeros at the right end of
the number. They are significant only if
the number contains a decimal point.
 9.300 has 4 sig figs.
 150 has 2 sig figs.
 150. has 3 sig figs.
 10 has 1 sig figs.
 10. has 2 sig figs.
 10.0 has 3 sig figs.
3. Exact numbers (conversion
factors and counting numbers)
have an infinite number of
significant figures.

 1 in = 2.54 cm (conversion factor)

 1 m = 100 cm (conversion factor)
 9 coins (counting)
How many sig figs are in the following
measurements?
• 0.0300 m
• 0.01 m
• 130. g
• 307.5 cm
• 1100 mL
• 1201 lb
 Scientific Notation
Scientific notation is used to make representing very
large or very small measurements easier.
Contains: decimal part + exponent part

A × 10B
• Decimal part (A): must be between 1 and 10
• Exponent part (B):
is positive if the number is greater than 1
is negative if the number is smaller than 1

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When using scientific notation, never
change the precision of the
measurement!
Examples
 300. is written as 3.00 × 102
 Contains three significant figures.
 3 × 102 is wrong!
 0.0051 is written as 5.1 × 10-3
 Contains two significant figures.
Advantages of using scientific notation:

 Number of significant figures can be easily

indicated.
 Fewer zeros are needed to write a very large or
very small number.

Express the following measurements in scientific notation:

5215 m =
0.00121 g =
1100 ft =
120 oC =
1000.0 mol =
 Significant Figures in Mathematical
Operations
1. For multiplication or division, the number of
significant figures in the result is the same as the
number in the least precise measurement used in
the calculation.

1.342 × 5.5 = 7.381  7.4 (2 sig figs)

85 ÷ 2 = 42.5  40 (one sig fig)

2. For addition or subtraction, the result has
the same number of decimal places as
the least precise measurement used in
the calculation.

23.445
 7.83
31.275 
Corrected 31.28
 Unit Conversion
• Must be able to use conversion factors to
change units using the “unit factor” or
“dimensional analysis” method.
• A conversion factor is a fraction which,
when multiplied by the given unit(s),
would cancel the given unit and obtain
the desired unit.
• Conversion factors will be given and do
not need to be memorized.
 Unit Conversion
Convert 6.8 ft to inches.

To convert from one unit to another, use the

equivalence statement that relates the two units.

1 ft = 12 in

The two unit factors are

1 ft 12 in
and
12 in 1 ft
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 Unit Conversion

• Derive the appropriate unit factor by looking

at the direction of the required change (to
cancel the unwanted units).

12 in
6.8 ft   in
1 ft

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 Unit Conversion

• Multiply the quantity to be converted by the

unit factor to give the quantity with the
desired units.

12 in
6.8 ft   82 in
1 ft

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 Unit Conversion
An iron sample has a mass of 4.50 lb. What is the mass of this
sample in grams?
(1 kg = 2.2046 lbs; 1 kg = 1000 g)

1 kg 1000 g
4.50 lbs   = 2.04  103 g
2.2046 lbs 1 kg

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 Unit Conversion

A car’s engine has a volume of 3500 mL.

What is the volume of this engine in ft3?
(1 mL = 1 cm3; 1 ft = 30.48 cm)

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 Unit Conversion
Calculate the money you would spend on gasoline
that costs $3.50/gallon to drive your car that gives
you 30 miles/gallon from New York to Los Angeles
(3200 miles).

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 Temperature
There are three main systems for
measuring Temperature:
• Fahrenheit
• Celsius
• Kelvin

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The Three Major Temperature Scales

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 Converting Between Scales

TK  TC + 273.15 TC  TK  273.15

TC  
TF  32 F 
5C
9F
TF  TC 
9F
5C
+ 32 F

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 Exercise
1. Convert 85 F to C.
2. Convert 35 C to K.
3. Convert 335 K to F.
4. At what temperature does C = F?

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 Density
• The measure of how compact a substance
is. The more mass we can find in a unit
volume, the higher the density. Therefore:
• Density = Mass of substance per unit
volume of the substance.
• Common units are g/cm3 or g/mL.
mass
Density =
volume

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 Example #1
A certain mineral has a mass of 17.8 g and a
volume of 2.35 cm3. What is the density of this
mineral?

mass
Density =
volume

17.8 g
Density =
2.35 cm3

3
Density = 7.57 g/cm
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 Example #2

What is the mass of a 49.6-mL sample of a

liquid, which has a density of 0.85 g/mL?
mass
Density =
volume

x
0.85 g/mL =
49.6 mL

mass = x = 42 g

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 Exercise
• Calculate the mass in grams of 25 mL of a
substance with a density of 2.5 lb/ft3.
 Matter

• Anything that occupies space and

has mass.
• Matter exists in three states.
 Solid
 Liquid
 Gas

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The Three States of Water

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 Solids
• Are Rigid
• Have fixed volume and shape.

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Structure of a Solid

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 Liquids
• Have definite volume but no
specific shape.
• Assume shape of container.

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Structure of a Liquid

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 Gases
• Have no fixed volume or shape.
• Take on the shape and volume of their container.

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Structure of a Gas

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 Matter
• Pure Substance – Made of only one type of
substance:
– Examples: Water, Sugar, Salt, Gold, Oxygen
• Mixture – Made of two or more different types of
substances:
– Examples:
– Air (oxygen, nitrogen, helium, …)
– Jewelry (gold, copper,…)
– Salt-Water (Salt, water)
– Sand-Water (Sand, Water)
– Ice Cream (milk, cream, sugar,…)
 Pure Substance
• Element (only one element)
Silver, Sodium, Carbon, hydrogen
• Compound (two or more elements combined)
Water, Carbon Dioxide, Sugar, salt, rust
 Mixtures
• Have variable composition.

Homogeneous Mixture

 Having visibly indistinguishable parts; solution.

Salt-Water, Tea, Coffee, Air
Heterogeneous Mixture

 Having visibly distinguishable parts.

Sand-Water, Orange Juice, Pizza

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Homogeneous Mixtures

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Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous
Mixtures

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Compound vs. Mixture

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 Concept Check
Which of the following is a homogeneous mixture?

 Pure water
 Gasoline
 Jar of jelly beans
 Soil
 Copper metal

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 Physical Change
• Change in the form of a substance, not in its
chemical composition.
 Example: boiling or freezing water
• Can be used to separate a mixture into pure
compounds, but it will not break compounds into
elements.
 Distillation
 Filtration
 Chromatography

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 Chemical Change
• A given substance becomes a new substance or
substances with different properties and different
composition.
 Example: Bunsen burner (methane reacts with
oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water)
 Can Change compounds into new compounds or
can break compounds into elements.

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The Organization of Matter

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 Concept Check
How many of the following are examples of a
chemical change?

 Crushing rock salt

 Burning of wood
 Dissolving of sugar in water
 Melting a popsicle on a warm summer day

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