Chapter 7:

Dislocations & Strengthening

Mechanisms
• Plastic deformation is the movement of a large number of
dislocations
• An edge dislocation moves when it undergoes shear
stress perpendicular to its line
• Dislocation moves require the breaking of interatomic
bonds before the half plane shifts
• The lattice is only disrupted during passage of the half
plane
• Slip is the plastic deformation produced by dislocation
motion
• Slip plane is the plane along which the dislocation line
travels
 Dislocations & Materials Classes
• Metals: Disl. motion easier.
+ + + + + + + +
-non-directional bonding + + + + + + + +
-close-packed directions + + + + + + + +
for slip. electron cloud ion cores

• Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Motion hard.
-directional (angular) bonding

• Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):

+ - + - + - +
Motion hard.
- + - + - + -
-need to avoid ++ and - -
neighbors. + - + - + - +
 Dislocation Motion
Dislocations & plastic deformation
• Cubic & hexagonal metals - plastic deformation is by plastic
shear or slip where one plane of atoms slides over adjacent
plane by defect motion (dislocations).
Adapted from Fig. 7.1,
Callister 7e.

• If dislocations don't move, deformation doesn't occur!

• Large scale plastic deformation is permanent
 DISLOCATION MOTION
• Produces plastic deformation ! Plastically
• Bonds are incrementally broken and re-formed. stretched
Much less force is needed , why ?
zinc
single
crystal.
Adapted from Fig.
7.9, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 7.9 is from
C.F. Elam, The
Distortion of
Metal Crystals,
Oxford University
Press, London,
SLIP PLANE 1935.)

Adapted from Fig. 7.1, Callister 6e. (Fig. 7.1 is adapted from A.G. Guy, Essentials of Materials
Science, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, 1976. p. 153.) Adapted from Fig.
7.8, Callister 6e.

• If dislocations don't move,

plastic deformation doesn't happen!

3
How do we generate the dislocation motion ?
 DISLOCATION MOTION
deformed Initial state
apply force

O1 O0

t3 t2 t1 t0

The motion of a single dislocation across the plane causes

the top half of the crystal to move (to slip) with respect to
the bottom half but we can not have to break all the bonds
across the middle plane simultaneously (which would
require a very large force).

The slip plane (O0-O1)– the crystallographic plane of dislocation

motion.
 STRESS and Dislocation Motion

Dislocation line

NOT be parallel to the dislocation line !

 Dislocation Motion
• Dislocation moves along slip plane in slip direction
perpendicular to dislocation line
• Slip direction same direction as Burgers vector
Edge dislocation

Adapted from Fig. 7.2,

Callister 7e.

Screw dislocation
STRESS AND DISLOCATION MOTION
STRESS field around dislocations

Bonds are Compressed

Bonds are Stretched

WHY is there a stress field ?

Atoms try to relax by trying to
achieve their positions for the case
if there was not a dislocation in the
vicinity !
Stress fields of dislocations interacting !
The strain fields around dislocations
interact with each other. Hence, they
exert force on each other.

Edge dislocations, when they are in

the same plane, they repel each
other if they have the same
sign (direction of the Burgers
vector). WHY ?

They can attract and annihilate if

they have opposite signs.
 Dislocation Density
• The number of dislocations in a material is expressed using the
term dislocation density - the total dislocation length per unit
volume or the # of dislocations intersecting a unit area. Units are
mm / mm3, or just / mm

• Dislocation densities can vary from 103 mm-2 in carefully

solidified metal crystals to 1010 mm-2 in heavily deformed
metals.

Where do Dislocations come from, what are their sources ?

• Most crystalline materials, especially metals, have dislocations
in their as-formed state, mainly as a result of stresses
(mechanical, thermal...) associated with the manufacturing
processes used.

• The number of dislocations increases dramatically during plastic

deformation.
• Dislocations spawn from existing dislocations, grain boundaries
and surfaces and other “defects” .

NICE SIMULATIONS => http://www.ims.uconn.edu/centers/simul/movie/

 Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
– Slip plane - plane allowing easiest slippage
• Wide interplanar spacings - highest planar densities
– Slip direction - direction of movement - Highest linear densities,
densest atomic packing
Adapted from Fig.
7.6, Callister 7e.

– FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes (relatively close-packed) in <110>

directions (close-packed) => total of 12 slip systems in FCC
– in BCC & HCP other slip systems occur
– FCC & BCC systems have many slip systems, they are ductile
– HCP has few slip systems, it is more brittle than FCC and BCC
 SLIP SYSTEMS !!!
• Dislocations move with ease on certain
crystallographic planes and along certain directions
on these planes !
– The plane is called a slip plane
– The direction is called a slip direction
– Combination of the plane of slip and direction is a
slip system
• The slip planes and directions are those of highest
packing density.
– The distance between atoms is shorter than the
average…High number of coordination along the
planes also important !
Slip Systems in Cubic Metals:
 Stress and Dislocation Motion
• Crystals slip due to a resolved shear stress, tR.
• Applied tension can produce such a stress.
Applied tensile Resolved shear Relation between
stress: s = F/A stress: tR =Fs /A s s and tR

A
F slip plane
tR tR = FS /AS
normal, ns
AS Fcos  A/cos 
FS
F nS 
 A
tR FS AS
F

tR  s cos  cos  Note: By definition  is the angle between

the stress direction and Slip direction;  is
the angle between the normal to slip
plane and stress direction
 Resolving the Applied Stress on a SLIP PLANE !
• Shear Stress has to be resolved on to the slip planes as;
– Shear Stress is needed for dislocations to move / slip
– Dislocations can only move on slip planes, and these
planes are rarely on axis with the applied force !

We should resolve the force applied in a tensile test,

F, on to the cross-sectional area A where the slip is
going to take place;
 Critical Resolved Shear Stress
• Condition for dislocation motion: tR  tCRSS
• Crystal orientation can make typically
it easy or hard to move dislocation
10-4 GPa to 10-2 GPa
tR  s cos  cos 
s s s

tR = 0 tR = s/2 tR = 0
 =90°  =45°  =90°
 =45°
The Critical Resolved Shear Stress
The minimum shear stress required to
initiate slip is termed:
the critical resolved shear stress
 Generally:

Resolved t (shear stress) is maximum at

 =  = 45º
And
tCRSS = sy/2 for dislocations to move (in
single crystals)
The applied stress required to initiate
yielding is sy = tCRSS /(cos  cos )max
 Plastically
Single Crystal Slip stretched
zinc
single
crystal.

Adapted from Fig.

7.9, Callister 7e.

A large number of
dislocations are
generated on slip planes,
as they leave the system
they form these “shear
bands”
Adapted from Fig. 7.8, Callister 7e.
 Ex: Deformation of single crystal
a) Will the single crystal yield?
b) If not, what stress is needed?
=60°
tcrss = 3000 psi
=35°

t  s cos  cos 
s  6500 psi

Adapted from
Fig. 7.7,
t  (6500 psi) (cos 35 )(cos 60 )
 (6500 psi) (0.41)
Callister 7e.

t  2662 psi  tcrss  3000 psi
s = 6500 psi

So the applied stress of 6500 psi will not cause the

crystal to yield.

Ex: Deformation of single crystal
What stress is necessary (i.e., what is the
yield stress, sy)?

tcrss  3000 psi  sy cos  cos   sy (0.41)

tcrss 3000 psi

 sy    7325 psi
cos  cos  0.41
So for deformation to occur the applied stress must be greater than or
equal to the yield stress

s  sy  7325 psi
 Determining  and  angles for Slip in
Crystals (single crystals are easy!)
•  and  angles are respectively angle between tensile
direction and Normal to Slip plane and angle between
tensile direction and slip direction (these slip directions
are material dependent)
• In General for cubic crystals, angles between directions
are given by:

 
u1u2  v1v2  w1w2
  Cos 1  
 
 u
2
1  
 v12  w12  u22  v22  w22  

• Thus for metals we compare Slip System (normal to slip

plane is a direction with exact indices as plane) to applied
tensile direction using this equation to determine the
values of  and  to plug into the tR equation to determine
if slip is expected
 Stress in Tension
• During tension there is deformation (slippage)
at several equal and most favorably oriented
planes and directions along the length of the
material
• The slips are parallel to each other and go
around the circumference of the material
• Each slip is due to many dislocations moving at
each slip plane, these are slip lines
• FCC and BCC: the slip may start along a
second slip system
• HCP: if  or  = 90° then tCRSS = 0 (fracture)
 Slip Motion in Polycrystals
• Stronger since grain boundaries s
pin deformations
• Slip planes & directions
(, ) change from one
Adapted from Fig.
7.10, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.10 is
crystal to another. courtesy of C.
Brady, National
Bureau of
• tR will vary from one Standards [now the
National Institute of
crystal to another. Standards and
Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD].)
• The crystal with the
largest tR yields first.
• Other (less favorably
oriented) crystals
300 mm
yield (slip) later.
Plastic Deformation in Polycrystalline Materials
 Twinning
• Another type of plastic deformation in metals
• Happens when shear force produces atomic
displacements so on one side of the plane the atoms
are located in mirror image positions of atoms on the
other side of the plane
• Occurs in specific directions and planes, depending on
the crystal structure
• Happens to metals with BCC and HCP crystal
structures at low temps and high rates of loading
• May reorient slip systems to preferred directions so
slip can occur
 Differences Between Slip and
Twin Systems
• Slip Systems • Twin Systems
– Crystal orientation – Crystal orientation is
above and below slips reoriented across the
remain constant twin plane
– Slip occurs in distinct – Atomic displacement
atom spacing multiples is less than interatomic
separation
– Much less bulk plastic
deformation than from
slip
After seeing the effect of poly crystalline materials
we can say (as related to strength):
• Ordinarily ductility is sacrificed when an alloy
is strengthened.
• The relationship between dislocation motion
and mechanical behavior of metals is
significance to the understanding of
strengthening mechanisms.
• The ability of a metal to plastically deform
depends on the ability of dislocations to
move.
• Virtually all strengthening techniques rely on
this simple principle: Restricting or Hindering
dislocation motion renders a material harder
and stronger.
• We will consider strengthening single phase
metals by: grain size reduction, solid-solution
alloying, and strain hardening
 STRATEGIES FOR STRENGTHENING:
1: REDUCE GRAIN SIZE
• Grain boundaries are
barriers to slip.
• Barrier "strength"
increases with
mis-orientation. slip plane B
High-angle boundaries are better a in
gr
in blocking slip !
grain A

gr
• Smaller grain size:

a
Adapted from Fig. 7.12, Callister 6e.

in
more barriers to slip. (Fig. 7.12 is from A Textbook of Materials
Technology, by Van Vlack, Pearson

bo
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

und
Hall-Petch Equation :
Grain size can be changed

ar
by processing ! 1/ 2
s yield  so  k y d

y
σ0 and ky are material
constants Average grain size
7
 GRAIN SIZE STRENGTHENING:
AN EXAMPLE
• 70wt%Cu-30wt%Zn brass alloy

s yield  so  k y d 1/ 2

• Data:

Adapted from Fig. 7.13,

Callister 6e.
(Fig. 7.13 is adapted
from H. Suzuki, "The
Relation Between the
Structure and
Mechanical Properties
of Metals", Vol. II,
National Physical
Laboratory Symposium
No. 15, 1963, p. 524.)

8
Grain Size Reduction Techniques:
•Increase Rate of solidification from the liquid phase.
•Perform Plastic deformation followed by an appropriate heat
treatment.
Notes:
 Grain size reduction also improves toughness of many
alloys.
Small-angle grain boundaries are not effective in
interfering with the slip process because of the
small crystallographic misalignment across the
boundary.
Boundaries between two different phases are also
impediments to movements of dislocations.
 Strategies for Strengthening:
2: Solid Solutions
 Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.
 Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
• Smaller substitutional • Larger substitutional
impurity impurity

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

and B that opposes dislocation and D that opposes dislocation
motion to the right. motion to the right.
 Strategy #2: Solid Solutions
• Alloyed metals are usually stronger than
their pure base metals counter parts.

Why ? Interstitial or substitutional impurities in a solution cause lattice

strain, aka distortions in the lattice
Then ?
• Strain field around the impurities interact with dislocation strain
fields and impede dislocation motion.
• Impurities tend to diffuse and segregate around the dislocation
core to find atomic sites more suited to their radii. This reduces
the overall strain energy and “anchor” the dislocation.
Motion of the dislocation core away from the impurities moves
it to a region of lattice where the atomic strains are greater,
where lattice strains due to dislocation is no longer
compensated by the impurity atoms.
 Interactions of the Stress Fields

COMPRESSIVE

TENSILE

TENSILE COMPRESSIVE
Interactions of the Stress Fields
Stress Concentration at
Dislocations

Adapted from Fig. 7.4,

Callister 7e.
Impurity Segregation
Impurities tend to segregate at
energetically favorable areas
around the dislocation core and
partially decrease the overall stress
field generated around the
dislocation core.

However, when stress is applied

more load is needed to move
dislocations with impurity atoms
segregated to its core !
 Strengthening by Alloying
• small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations on the
“Compressive stress side”
• reduce mobility of dislocation  increase strength

Adapted from Fig.

7.17, Callister 7e.
 Strengthening by alloying
• Large impurities concentrate at dislocations on
“Tensile Stress” side – pinning dislocation

Adapted from Fig.

7.18, Callister 7e.
 Ex: Solid Solution Strengthening in Copper

• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.

Tensile strength (MPa)

180

Yield strength (MPa)

400

300 120

200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

• Empirical relation: s y ~ C 1/ 2
Adapted from Fig.
7.16 (a) and (b),
• Alloying increases sy and TS. Callister 7e.
Strategies for Strengthening: 3. Precipitation Strengthening

• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear. Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC

in Iron or Aluminum).

precipitate
Large shear stress needed to move
Side View dislocation toward precipitate and
shear it.
Dislocation “advances” but
Unslipped part of slip plane
Top View precipitates act as “pinning” sites
with spacing S. which “multiplies”
Dislocation density
S
Slipped part of slip plane

1
• Result: sy ~
S
Application: Precipitation Strengthening

• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767

Adapted from chapter-
opening photograph,
Chapter 11, Callister 5e.
(courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

• Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed by alloying & H.T.

Adapted from Fig.

11.26, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 11.26 is courtesy
of G.H. Narayanan
and A.G. Miller,
Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

1.5mm
Strategies for Strengthening: 4. Cold Work (%CW)

• Room temperature deformation.

• Common forming operations change the cross
sectional area:
-Forging force -Rolling
roll
die Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
Adapted from Fig.
11.8, Callister 7e. roll

-Drawing force -Extrusion

Ao
die Ad container die holder
Ao tensile force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die
Ao  Ad
%CW  x 100
Ao
 During Cold Work
• Ti alloy after cold working:
• Dislocations entangle and
multiply
• Thus, Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.

Adapted from Fig.

4.6, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 4.6 is courtesy
of M.R. Plichta,
Michigan
0.9 mm Technological
University.)
 Result of Cold Work
Dislocation density (rd ) =total dislocation length
unit volume
– Carefully grown single crystal
 ca. 103 mm-2
– Deforming sample increases density
 109-1010 mm-2
– Heat treatment reduces density
 105-106 mm-2
s
• Yield stress increases sy1 large hardening
sy0
as rd increases: small hardening

e
 RESULT OF
• Dislocation density (rd) goes up:
COLD WORK
Carefully prepared sample: rd ~ 103 mm/mm3
Heavily deformed sample: rd ~ 1010 mm/mm3
• Ways of measuring dislocation density:
40mm
Area, A dislocation Micrograph
pit adapted from
Fig. 7.0, Callister
OR 6e. (Fig. 7.0 is
N dislocation courtesy of W.G.
Johnson,
pits (revealed General Electric
by etching) Co.)
r N
d
A
• Yield stress increases
as rd increases:

18
 STRENGTHENING STRATEGY 4: COLD WORK
(%CW)
• An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.
BUT actually # of dislocations are increasing !!!
Distance between dislocations decreases, but most dislocation interactions are
repulsive and dislocation movement is limited

• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:

22
 Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (sy) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases, as does hardness.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Lo-Carbon Steel!
Adapted from Fig. 7.20,
Callister 7e.
 IMPACT OF COLD WORK
• Yield strength (s ) increases.
y
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.
Stress

Adapted from Fig. 7.18,

Callister 6e. (Fig. 7.18 is
from Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection:
Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th
ed., B. Bardes (Ed.),
American Society for
Metals, 1978, p. 221.)

21
 Cold Work Analysis
• What is the tensile strength &
ductility after cold working?
Copper
Cold
Work

D o =15.2mm D d =12.2mm

2 2
ro  rd
%CW  x 100  35.6%
2
ro
 Cold Work
• What is the tensile strength &
Analysis
Copper
ductility after cold working? Cold
Work
ro2  rd2
%CW  x 100  35.6%
2
ro Do =15.2mm Dd =12.2mm
yield strength (MPa) tensile strength (MPa) ductility (%EL)
60
700 800

500 600 40

300MPa Cu
300 Cu 400 340MPa 20
Cu
100 7%
0 20 40 60 200 00
0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
sy = 300MPa TS = 340MPa %EL = 7%
Adapted from Fig. 7.19, Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection:
Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and Metals
Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker
(Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.)
 s- e Behavior vs. Temperature
800
• Results for -200C

Stress (MPa)
polycrystalline iron: 600
-100C
400

200 25C
Adapted from Fig. 6.14,
Callister 7e. 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Strain
• sy and TS decrease with increasing test temperature.
• %EL increases with increasing test temperature.
3. disl. glides past obstacle
• Why? Vacancies
2. vacancies
help dislocations replace
move past obstacles. atoms on the obstacle
disl. half
plane 1. disl. trapped
by obstacle
 Plastic Deformation of
Polycrystalline Metal
• If deformation is done at T<<Tm, then get
– Change in grain shape
– Strain hardening
– Increased dislocation density
• Tensile, shear, and compressive zones are created
around dislocations, but some dislocation energy is
stored as strain energy
• The above changes can be reversed to pre-cold
working levels via heat treatmet due to
recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth
 Effect of Heating After %CW
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
• Effects of cold work are reversed!
annealing temperature (ºC)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
tensile strength (MPa)

600 60
tensile strength

ductility (%EL)
50
500
• 3 Annealing
40
stages to
400 30 discuss...
Adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister 7e. (Fig.
ductility 20 7.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and K.R. van
300 Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied Metallurgy,
and the Industrial Processing of Ferrous and
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, American
Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)
 Recovery
• Some stored internal strain energy is
relieved by dislocation motion
– This is due to increased atom movement at
higher temperatures
• Some reduction in the number of
dislocations and dislocation configurations
are created with low strain energy
 Recovery
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.
• Scenario 1 extra half-plane
of atoms Dislocations
Results from annihilate
diffusion atoms
and form
diffuse
a perfect
to regions
atomic
of tension
plane.
extra half-plane
of atoms
• Scenario 2
3. “Climbed” disl. can now tR
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to “climb”
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
can’t move to the right
 Recrystallization
• After recovery the grains are still in a high strain
energy state
• Recrystallization is the forming of a new set of
strain free grains with equal sizes in all
directions
– Grains how low dislocation densities
• New grains grow and replace all of the old
material and give a refined grain structure
• The original mechanical properties are restored
– the recrystallized metal is weaker and more
ductile
 Recrystallization Amount
• Amount of recrystallization depends on time and
temperature
• Recrystallization temperature is the temperature at
which recrystallization finishes in 1 hour
– Usually between 1/3-1/2 of the Tm
– Depends on % cold working and purity of alloy
– As %CW increases, recrystallization rate increases, and
recrystallization temp decreases
• Recrystallization will not occur for materials that have
been cold worked at levels between 2-20%
 Recrystallization
• Recrystallization is faster in pure metals
• During recrystallization there is grain
boundary movement due to nuclei forming
and growing
– Impure atoms congregate at the grain
boundaries which decreases boundary
movement and the recrystallization rate and
increases the recrystallization temperature
Pure metals have Trecryst of 0.3Tm
Alloy may have Trecryst of 0.7Tm
 Recrystallization Temperature, TR

TR = recrystallization temperature = point

of highest rate of property change
1. TR  0.3-0.6 Tm (K)
2. Due to diffusion  annealing time TR = f(t)
shorter annealing time => higher TR
3. Higher %CW => lower TR – strain hardening
4. Pure metals lower TR due to dislocation
movements
• Easier to move in pure metals => lower TR
 Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
-- have a low dislocation density
-- are small
-- consume cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (a),(b),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.
 Further Recrystallization
• All cold-worked grains are consumed.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (c),(d),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds
 Grain Growth
• If metal is exposed to high temperatures
then the grains will keep growing after
recrystallization
• Grain growth does not have to be
preceded by recovery and recrystallization
• As grain size increases, the total boundary
area in the material decreases, causing a
decrease in the total energy
– This drives grain growth
 Grain Growth
• Some grains grow while others shrink
– Grain boundaries migrate
– Atoms move from one side of the boundary to the other side
• Grain diameter varies with time
– Diameter increases with time
• dn –d0n =Kt
– d0 is the initial grain diameter at time t=0
– K, n are time independent constants
• Grain growth increases as temperature increases due
to increased diffusion rate
• Cold work, recovery, recrystallization, and growth are
performed to change coarse grains to finer grains
which increases stress and toughness
 Grain Growth
• At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
• Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy)
is reduced.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (d),(e),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 8 s, After 15 min,

580ºC 580ºC
coefficient dependent on
• Empirical Relation: material & Temp.
exponent typ. ~ 2
elapsed time
grain dia. At time t. d  d  Kt
n n
o

This is: Ostwald Ripening

 º

TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

Adapted from Fig.

7.22, Callister 7e.

º
 Coldwork Calculations

A cylindrical rod of brass originally 0.40 in (10.2

mm) in diameter is to be cold worked by
drawing. The circular cross section will be
maintained during deformation. A cold-worked
tensile strength in excess of 55,000 psi (380
MPa) and a ductility of at least 15 %EL are
desired. Further more, the final diameter must
be 0.30 in (7.6 mm). Explain how this may be
accomplished.
 Coldwork Calculations Solution
If we directly draw to the final diameter what
happens?
Brass
Cold
Work

Do = 0.40 in Df = 0.30 in

 Ao  Af   Af 
%CW    x 100  1   x 100
 Ao   Ao 
 Df2 4    0.30 2 
 1   x 100  1     x 100  43.8%
 Do 4 
2   0.40  
 
 Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

420 540

Adapted from Fig.

• For %CW = 43.8% 7.19, Callister 7e.

– sy = 420 MPa
– TS = 540 MPa > 380 MPa
– %EL = 6 < 15
• This doesn’t satisfy criteria…… what can we do?
 Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

380 15

12 27

Adapted from Fig.

For TS > 380 MPa > 12 %CW 7.19, Callister 7e.

For %EL > 15 < 27 %CW

 our working range is limited to %CW = 12 – 27%

This process Needs an Intermediate Recrystallization
i.e.: Cold draw-anneal-cold draw again
• For objective we need a cold work of %CW  12-27
– We’ll use %CW = 20
• Diameter after first cold draw (before 2nd cold draw)?
– must be calculated as follows:
 D f 22  D f 22 %CW
%CW  1  2 
x 100  1 
 Ds 2  Ds 2 2 100

0.5 Df 2
Df 2  %CW   Ds 2 
 1    %CW 
0.5

Ds 2  100  1  
 100 
0.5
 20 
Intermediate diameter = D f 1  Ds 2  0.30 1    0.335 in
 100 
 Coldwork Calculations Solution
Summary:
1. Cold work D01= 0.40 in  Df1 = 0.335 in

2. Anneal above Ds2 = Df1

3. Cold work Ds2= 0.335 in  Df 2 =0.30 in

 2 
 
%CW1  1 
0.335 
x 100  30
  0.4 
 
 
s y  340 MPa
  0.3  2

%CW2  1  
  0.335 
 x 100  20

 TS  400 MPa
 

%EL  24
Fig 7.19
Therefore, meets all requirements
 Summary
• Dislocations are observed primarily in metals
and alloys.
• Strength is increased by making dislocation
motion difficult.
• Particular ways to increase strength are to:
--decrease grain size
--solid solution strengthening
--precipitate strengthening
--cold work
• Heating (annealing) can reduce dislocation density
and increase grain size. This decreases the strength.