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• In the preceding chapters most of the relations have been developed for
one-dimensional flow, i.e., flow in which the average velocity at each cross
section is used and variations across the section are neglected.
• The Prandtl hypothesis states that for fluids of low viscosity the effects of
viscosity are appreciable only in a narrow region surrounding the fluid
boundaries.
• For incompressible flow situations in which the boundary layer remains
thin, ideal-fluid results may be applied to flow of a real fluid to a
satisfactory degree of approximation.
(2.2.5)
• may be reorganized into the proper form. The unit vector j' is directed
vertically upward in the coordinate direction h.
• These are the direction cosines of h with respect to the xyz system of
coordinates, and they may be written
Figure 8.1 Arbitrary orientation of xyz
coordinate system
• For example, ∂h/∂x is the change in h for unit change in x when y, z,
and t are constant. In equation form,
(8.2.2)
• u, v, w are velocity components in the x, y, z directions, respectively, at
any point; du/dt is the x component of acceleration of the fluid particle
at (x, y, z).
• However, dx/dt, dy/dt, and dz/dt are the velocity components of the
particle, so that ax, the x component of the particle acceleration, is
• By treating dv/dt and dw/dt in a similar manner, the Euler equations in
three dimensions for a frictionless fluid are
(8.2.3)
(8.2.4)
(8.2.5)
• The first three terms on the right-hand sides of the equations are
convective-acceleration terms, depending upon changes of velocity with
space.
• The last term is local acceleration, depending upon velocity change
with time at a point.
Natural Coordinates in Two-Dimensional Flow
(8.2.6)
(8.2.7)
• By taking particular directions for the x and y axes, they can be reduced to
a form that makes them easier to understand.
(8.2.8)
• Although vn is zero at the point (s, n), its rates of change with respect to s
and t are not necessarily zero. Equation (8.2.7) becomes
(8.2.9)
Figure 8.2 Notation for natural coordinates
• With r the radius of curvature of the streamline at s, from similar triangles
(Fig. 8.2),
(8.2.10)
• For steady flow of an incompressible fluid Eqs. (8.2.6) and (8.2.10) can be
written
(8.2.11)
and
(8.2.12)
Solution
• n is the radial distance, measured inwardly, dn = -dr, and vs = ωr .
Integrating Eq. (8.2.12) gives
or
• which shows that the pressure is hydrostatic along a vertical line and
increases as the square of the radius.
• Integration of Eq. (8.2.11) shows that the pressure is constant for a given h
and vs, that is, along a streamline.
8.3 IRROTATIONAL FLOW; VELOCITY
POTENTIAL
• In this section it is shown that the assumption of irrotational flow leads
to the existence of a velocity potential. By use of these relations and the
assumption of a conservative body force, the Euler equations can be
integrated.
• Similarly, the body force acts at the mass center. Hence, no torque can
be exerted on the sphere, and it remains without rotation. Likewise,
once an ideal fluid has rotation, there is no way of altering it, as no
torque can be exerted on an elementary sphere of the fluid.
• An analytical expression for fluid rotation of a particle about an axis
parallel to the z axis is developed. The rotation component may be defined
as the average angular velocity of two infinitesimal linear elements that are
mutually perpendicular to each other and to the axis of rotation.
• The two line elements may conveniently be taken as x and y in Fig. 8.3,
although any other two perpendicular elements in the plane through the
point would yield the same result. The particle is at P(x, y), and it has
velocity components u, v in the xy plane. The angular velocities of δx and
δy are sought.
(8.3.1)
Figure 8.3 Rotation in a fluid
• Similarly, the two other rotation components, ωx and ωy, about axes
parallel to x and to y are
(8.3.2)
(8.3.3)
(8.3.4)
• These restrictions on the velocity must hold at every point (except special
singular points or lines).
• The first equation is the irrotational condition for two dimensional flow. It
is the condition that the differential expression
• is exact, say
(8.3.5)
• In vector form,
(8.3.6)
• is equivalent to
(8.3.7)
• The assumption of a velocity potential is equivalent to the assumption of
irrotational flow, as
(8.3.8)
• proving etc.
• yields
(8.3.9)
• In vector form this is
(8.3.10)
• and is written
• Because appears to the first power in each term, Eq. (8.3.9), is a linear
equation, and the sum of two solutions also is a solution; e.g., if φ1 and φ2
are solutions of Eq. (8.3.9), then φ1 + φ2 is a solution; thus
• then
(8.4.1)
• Similarly, for the y and z direction,
(8.4.2)
(8.4.3)
• The quantities within the parentheses are the same in Eqs. (8.4.1) to (8.4.3).
Equation (8.4.1) states that the quantity is not a function of x, since the
derivative with respect to x is zero.
• Similarly, the other equations show that the quantity is not a function of y
or z. Therefore, it can be a function of t only, say F(t):
(8.4.4)
(8.4.5)
(8.4.6)
(8.4.7)
Example 8.2
• A submarine moves through water at a speed of 10 m/s. At a point A on the
submarine 1.5 m above the nose, the velocity of the submarine relative to
the water is 15 m/s. Determine the dynamic pressure difference between
this point and the nose, and determine the difference in total pressure
between the two points.
Solution
• If the submarine is stationary and the water is moving past it, the velocity
at the nose is zero and the velocity at A is 15 m/s. By selecting the dynamic
pressure at infinity as zero, from Eq. (8.4.6)
• For point A
• Therefore, the difference in dynamic pressure is
• Hence
• It can also be reasoned that the actual pressure difference varies by 1.5γ
from the dynamic pressure difference since A is 1.5 m above the nose, or
8.5 STREAM FUNCTIONS; BOUNDARY
CONDITIONS
Two-Dimensional Stream Function
(8.5.1)
(8.5.2)
• In plane polar coordinates from Fig. 8.6b.
(8.5.3)
• In any one of the planes through the axis of symmetry select two
points A, P such that A is fixed and P is variable. Draw a line
connecting AP.
• The flow through the surface generated by rotating AP about the
axis of symmetry is a function of the position of P. Let his function
be 2Pψ, and let the x axis of symmetry be the axis of a cartesian
system of reference. Then ψ is a function of x and ω, where
(8.5.4)
(8.5.5)
• The stream function is used for flow about bodies of revolution that
are frequently expressed most readily in spherical polar
coordinates. From Fig. 8.7a and b,
• from which
(8.5.6)
• and
(8.5.7)
(8.5.8)
(8.5.9)
• at all points on the boundary. For a moving boundary (Fig. 8.9), where the
boundary point has the velocity V, the fluid velocity component normal to
the boundary must equal the velocity of the boundary normal to boundary;
thus
(8.5.10)
• or
(8.5.11)
Figure 8.8 Notation for
boundary condition at a fixed
boundary
• The concepts underlying the flow net have been developed for
irrotational flow of an ideal fluid.
8.7 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW
Flow around a Corner
Figure 8.12 Flow net for flow along two inclined surfaces
Source
• In referring to Fig. 8.14, the flow along a closed curve is called the
circulation. The circulation Γ around a closed path C is
• The value of the circulation is the strength of the vortex. By
selecting any circular path of radius r to determine the circulation,
hence,
• with r1, r2 measured from source and sink, respectively, to the point
P.
Figure 8.15 Notation for derivation of a
two-dimensional doublet
• The terms r1, and r2 may be expressed in terms of the polar
coordinates r, θ by the cosine law, as follows:
• leads to
• After simplifying,
• If 2am=μ, and if the limit is taken as a approaches zero,
• After integrating,
• The equations in cartesian coordinates are
• Rearranging gives
• The lines of constant φ are circles through the origin with centers
on the x axis, and the streamlines are circles through the origin
with centers on the y axis, as shown in Fig. 8.16.
• In polar coordinates,
Flow around a Circular Cylinder
• The addition of the flow due to a doublet and a uniform flow results
in flow around a circular cylinder; thus
• for the uniform flow in the -x direction. The equipotential lines and
streamlines for this case are shown in Fig. 8.17
Solution:
• The velocity potential for the source is
Solution
• The stagnation point has ψ=0 . By selecting increments of R, θ can
be determined from