AERODYNAMICS NATURAL SOURCES OF AERODYNAMIC FORCES (2) HYDROSTATIC EQUATION BASIC AERODYNAMICS

• study of interaction between gases and  Small change in pressure corresponds to small change
P (1) STEADY INCOMPLETE INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW
moving/stationary bodies (1) Pressure distribution in altitude
 Density is constant along the flow where volume
on the surface  Applicable only to fluids
• studied by Aerodynamicists changes are infinitesimally low, therefore treated as
τω constant
(2) Shear stress (due to eq. 15 dP = (𝜌)(−𝑔)(dhG )
PROPERTIES OF GAS friction) on the surface
 Velocity (V) < 100 m/s

(1) PRESSURE (3) GRADIENT REGION

(a) CONTINUITY EQUATION
 Force exerted on a surface *Both creates an unbalance force  Temperature varies with altitude
eq. 1 dF  Sub 2 = higher altitude dm = (𝜌AV dt) eq. 21
Where:
P = lim P = static pressure or
EQUATION OF STATE FOR PERFECT GAS
 Sub 1 = lower altitude dm ṁ = mass flow
dA→0 dA ambient pressure (a) Lapse Rate (α)
= 𝜌AV = ṁ eq. 22
eq. 2 F = force
(1) PERFECT GAS dt 𝜌 = density
F  intermolecular forces are neglected  Slope of temperature over altitude ṁ1 = ṁ2 eq. 23 A = area
P= A = area  P and T are directly influenced by intermolecular 𝜌1 A1 V1 = 𝜌2 A2 V2 ; 𝜌1 = 𝜌2 V = velocity
A factors, specially when closely packed together or
dT T2 − T1 Sub 1 = upstream
eq. 16 α= = A1 V1 = A2 V2
high densities [low temperatures] dh h2 − h1 eq. 24 Sub 2 = downstream
(2) DENSITY  Perfect gases are low density or approached as
 Mass of a substance per unit volume (b) Temperature (b) MOMENTUM EQUATION
widely separated [average of 10 molecular diameters]
 Derived from eq. 16  A.k.a. Euler’s Equation
eq. 3 dm  subsonic and supersonic flight at atmosphere
𝜌 = lim 𝜌 = density [rho] eq. 17 T = T + α(h
2 1 2 − h1 )  Relates the rate of energy of momentum to the force
dv→0 dv m = mass (2) EQUATION OF STATE
(b) Pressure
along an element on a streamline, and also ∆P to ∆V
eq. 4  Relates P, 𝜌 , R, and T at a single point −𝑔𝑜 −𝑔𝑜
m v = volume dV = −𝜌V dV eq. 25
𝜌=  Only for perfect gas conditions P2 T2 αR α(h2 − h1 ) α𝑅
v  Higher pressure means lower temperature and eq. 18 = = 1+
increase in density P1 T1 𝑇1 (c) BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
(3) TEMPERATURE
 Integrated from eq. 20
 Measure of average kinetic energy per particle eq. 9 P = 𝜌RT ; constant at any point (c) Density  Applicable only for incompressible flows
eq. 5 KE = kinetic energy per −𝑔𝑜 −𝑔𝑜
3 −1 −1 1 1
KE = kT particle [J / particle] (3) BERTHOLT EQUATION OF STATE 𝜌2 T2 αR α(𝑕2 − 𝑕1 ) α𝑅
eq. 26 P1 + 𝜌1 V1 2 = P2 + 𝜌2 V2 2 ; 𝜌1 = 𝜌2
2 k = Boltzmann constant  Represents deviation of an actual gas in nature from a = = 1+ 2 2
J perfect gas behavior 𝜌1 T1 𝑇1
= 1.38 x 10−23  Where a and b are constants eq. 19
(2) STEADY ISENTROPIC COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
K  Isentropic means Adiabatic and Frictionless
T = Temperature  Used for perfect gas conditions where compressibility
P aP bP (4) ISOTHERMAL REGION
eq. 10 =1+ −  Temperature is constant for all altitude affects of density are non-negligible (more than 5%)
(4) FLOW VELOCITY (V) 𝜌RT T T  Sub 2 = higher altitude due to change in temperature.
 Denotes speed and direction of particle  Sub 1 = lower altitude  At constant P and V ; lower temperature means
(4) OTHER REMINDERS
(a) Steady flow – flow does not fluctuate with time denser
(b) Streamlines – path of a moving fluid (a) For a chemically reacting gas, Equation of State is (a) Pressure, Density
−𝑔𝑜 (a) CONTINUITY EQUATION
still applicable, but R will change
P2 𝜌2 e (h −h )
RT 2 1
Streamlines R = 287.08 J/kg K
eq. 20 = = eq. 27 𝜌1 A1 V1 = 𝜌2 A2 V2
R = universal gas constant R = 1716 ft lb/ slug R
R = 53.342 ft lbm/ lbf R
P1 𝜌1 1
(b) ENERGY EQUATION
where R is the amount of energy present per unit  Derived from work equation [thermodynamics]
mass (or specific energy) per degree of temperature Note: because the compressibility effects creates work
Flow over an airfoil  FOR GRADIENT REGION: 0 kM–11 kM [0 ft – 36 083 ft ] through the change in volume, hence change in
density
(b) Specific Volume (v) K 1 1
(5) VISCOSITY eq. 11 𝜌=
m
; P = 𝜌RT =
m
RT
α = −0.0065
m eq. 28 cp T1 + V1 2 = cp T2 + V2 2
v v −𝑔𝑜 K
2 2
 ability of the fluid = 5.26
αR α = −6.5 (i) Helpful Equations
layers of a substance STANDARD ATMOSPHERE km k = ratio of specific
to resist flow and R
 Reflects average atmospheric condition below α = −0.003566 eq. 29 eq. 30 heat
adhere to the surface 30 km (100 000 ft) ft kR cp cp = specific heat w/
 STANDARD SEA LEVEL CONDITIONS (SSLC) cp = k=
k−1 cv constant P
(1) ALTITUDE cv= specific heat w/
(a) Dynamic Viscosity (𝜇) [aka absolute viscosity] (a) Geometric Altitude (hG) – sea level reference Pressure (P)101 325 Pa = 2116.8 psf constant volume
kg slug
1.458 𝑥 10−6 (𝑇)3/2 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾 (b) Absolute Altitude (ha) – from center of earth Density (𝜌) = 1.225 3 = 0.002377 3
eq. 6 𝜇= eq. 12 ha = r + hG ; r = radius of earth
m ft (c) ISENTROPIC RELATIONS
k
𝑇 + 110.4 𝑚∙𝑠 Temperature (T) = 288.16 𝐾 = 519 𝑅 518.69 R k −k
(c) Local Gravity (g) – from center of earth P2 𝜌1 v1 T1 k−1
2.329 𝑥 10 (𝑇)−8 3/2
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 ∙ 𝑅 r 2 = = = ; v = specific
eq. 7 𝜇= eq. 13 𝑔 = 𝑔𝑜 ; 𝑔𝑜 = gravity at sea level P1 𝜌2 v2 T2
𝑇 + 216 𝑓𝑡 ∙ 𝑠 ha  FOR AIR:
eq. 31
volume
(d) Geopotential Altitude (h) – gravity adjusted height
J ft ∙ lbf ft ∙ lbf
r R = 287.08 = 1716 = 53.342 (d) EQUATION OF STATE
(a) Kinematic Viscosity (𝑣) h = hG kg ∙ K slug ∙ R lbm ∙ R
eq. 14 ha P1 = 𝜌1 RT1 P2 = 𝜌2 RT2 ; 𝜌1 ≠ 𝜌2
kg slug
𝜇 𝑚 2
(e) Pressure Altitude– pressure adjusted height
μ = 1.7984 x 10−5 = 3.7372 x 10−7
eq. 8 𝑣= m∙s ft∙s
Note: BASIC AERODYNAMICS
𝜌 𝑠 (f) Temperature Altitude – temperature adjusted height
 All equations could be used on 2 different points
(g) Density Altitude – density adjusted height Ratio of specific heat (k) = 1.4 event at different streamlines
(3) SPEED OF SOUND (5) STAGNATION CONDITIONS [a.k.a. Steady-State] (d) Incompressible Flow (8) SUPERSONIC WIND TUNNELS
 Depends on the temperature  Occurs when velocity is isentropically slowed down to (i) True Air Speed ( VT ) (a)
zero at a certain point [ V = 0 ]  Derived from eq. 40 ; V1 = VT (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
(a) Speed of Sound (a)
 Resulting values are called “Total Values” which are
P m ft presented with sub 0 [sub zero ] e.g. P0 T0 𝜌0 2 ( P0 − P1 )
eq. 32 a= kRT = k or  Sub 1 represents free stream, not necessary upstream
eq. 47 VT 2 =
𝜌 s s 𝜌1
(a) Bernoulli’s Equation (d) Divergent Nozzle
(ii) Equivalent Air Speed ( Ve ) (a) Reservoir
(b) Mach Number:  Derived from eq. 26 with V2 = 0 ; P2 = P0 Supersonic nozzle is an
 From pitot-static system stagnant conditions
expansion process where
V 1  Derived from eq. 47 Total values
eq. 33 M= [dimensionless] eq. 40 P1 + 𝜌1 V1 2 = P0 P0 = total pressure V0= 0 M=0
pressure decreases causing
a 2 2 ( P0 − P1 ) velocity increase.
(c) Speed Regimes P1 = free stream eq. 48 Ve 2 =
eq. 41 P1 + 𝑞1 = P0 static pressure 𝜌𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐶 (b) Contraction Nozzle (e) Test Section
M<1 subsonic M=0 M>1
M < 0.3 incompressible flow (e) Compressible Subsonic Flow
M ≥ 0.3 compressible flow Precise (i) Dynamic Pressure (𝑞 ) (c) Throat (*) (f) Exit (sub e)
M=1 sonic Mass flow choking Usually the same
(i) True Air Speed ( VT )
M>1 supersonic 1 1 star ( * ) atmospheric conditions with
0.8 ≤ M ≤ 1.2 transonic
Imprecise; q1 = 𝜌 V 2 = kP1 M1  Derived from eq. 45 ; V1 = VT
Sonic flow
2 1 1
eq. 42 entry, sometimes slightly
depends on 2 V* = a* M = 1 lesser due to test models
M > 5 Hypersonic k−1
aerodynamic
phenomena
(b) Energy Equation
2 2(a1 )2 P0 k
 Derived from eq. 28 with V2 = 0 ; T2 = T0 eq. 49 VT = −1
k−1 P1 (a) Area-Velocity Relations
(4) SUBSONIC WIND TUNNELS 1 dA dV
Open Circuit Wind Tunnel eq. 43 cp T1 + V1 2 = cp T0 (ii) Calibrated Air Speed ( Ve ) = (M2 − 1)
Contraction
2  From pitot-static system
eq. 52
A V
cone (c) Isentropic Relations  Derived from eq. 49 and eq. 33
Fan  Relates eq. 31 in stagnation conditions with free Where:
Flow
stream Mach number eq. 50 k−1 A = area V = Velocity
 Derived from eq. 43 2(aSSLC )2 P0 − P1 k Positive (+) values mean increasing
Vcal 2 = +1 −1
T0 1 k−1 PSSLC Negative (-) values mean decreasing
eq. 44 = 1 + (k − 1)(M1 )2
Exit T1 2 (b) Isentropic Relations Application
Entry  All equations are reciprocated forms of eq. 44 , eq.
Test Usually the same k
atmospheric
Section atmospheric conditions with P0 1 2
k−1 45, and eq. 46, respectively.
= 1 + k − 1 M1
M1
conditions eq. 45 (7) SUPERSONIC FLOW
M>1 entry, sometimes slightly  Sub 0 = reservoir [total values]
[usually SSLC] P1 2  Sub 1 = can be any part of the wind tunnel
lesser due to test models
Note: equation 22 is only applicable with constant slope 1 Supersonic downstream
walls, otherwise, use eq. 21 where dt is for rate of change 𝜌0 1 2
k−1 M1 > 1 M1 > M2 −1
eq. 46 = 1 + k − 1 M1 Te T ∗ T1 1
of slope of walls 𝜌1 2 V1 V1 > V2 eq. 53 ⇒ ⇒ = 1 + k − 1 M1 2
(a) Velocity at Wind tunnels P1 P1 < P2 T0 T0 T0 2
 Derived from eq. 24 and eq. 26 Pitot −k
 Relates 2 points along a flow
(6) MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED T1 T1 < T2 Tube
 Aircrafts use a Pitot-Static system as an airspeed Pe P ∗ P1 1 2
k−1
indicator eq. 54 ⇒ ⇒ = 1 + k − 1 M1
2 ( 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) Pitot Tube P01 P01 > P02 P0 P0 P0 2
𝑉2 = 2 Sub 1 = upstream
𝐴 T01 T01 = T02 −1
𝜌 1− 2 Sub 2 = downstream
Flow with Velocity (V1 ) 𝜌e 𝜌 ∗ 𝜌1 1 k−1
eq. 34 𝐴1 2
eq. 55 ⇒ ⇒ = 1 + k − 1 M1
𝜌0 𝜌0 𝜌0 2
Note: Could be use to related reservoir conditions to Shock wave
exit conditions directly, or vice versa (c) Area Ratio
Static Pressure
(b) Pressure difference [Manometer] Orifice (a) Rayleigh’s Pitot tube Formula  Star (*) is throat where M = 1
Differential Pressure Gauge  Relates free stream Mach number and pitot tube
 Derived from eq. 15  Sub 1 = nozzle section
(a) Pitot Tube behind shockwave conditions = test section of exit (sub e)
eq. 35 P1 − P2 = 𝛾 ( h2 − h1 )  Perpendicular to streamline  Area Ratio for reservoir to throat may reach zero or
eq. 51 k
 Tube slows down the air V∞ infinity large.
eq. 36 Specific weight (𝛾) = 𝜌g o [
N
or
lbf
] P02 k + 1 2 M1 2 k−1 1 − k + 2k M1 2
isentropically to zero = k+1
m3 ft3
 Measures total pressure ( P0 ) P1 4k M1 2 − 2(k − 1) k+1 Ae A1 1 1 k−1
eq. 37 P1 − P2 = 𝜌g o ( h2 − h1 ) ⇒ = 1 + k − 1 M1 2
(b) Static Port
𝐴 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑀12 2
(c) Area Ratio ( Ar )  Parallel to streamline V∞ Concept: eq. 56
 Ensure natural ramification Shockwaves cause the free stream velocity to
eq. 38 A2 Sub 2 = downstream of molecules in reading decrease, thereby increasing the static pressure Note:
Ar = Arrangement
static pressure or ambient
A1 Sub 1 = upstream for ratios behind the shockwave. All formulas under basic aerodynamics are inviscid
pressure ( P1 or P∞ ) flow equations
e.g. Pressure Ratio
Remember:
P2 (c) Differential Pressure Gauge
Static pressure is inversely proportional to velocity.
eq. 39  Measures difference between static pressure
P1 and total pressure, with SSLC condition.
VISCOUS FLOW (6) SHEAR STRESS (6) AERODYNAMIC FORCES
5 Digit NACA Airfoil
(1) CONCEPTS eq. 58 𝑑𝑉 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝜏𝜔Laminar < 𝜏𝜔Turbulent
NACA X XX XX
(a) d’ Alembert’s Paradox 𝜏𝜔 = μ XX
dy 𝑦 = 0 Thickness: (c)
 Frictionless flow and no drag 100
 Equal pressure at front and *Greater
𝜏𝜔 = shear stress Location of XX
max camber: 200 (c)
rear surface drag
 Inviscid flow 𝜇= dynamic viscosity
(b) Real Flow
Max camber X
(7) REYNOLD’S NUMBER [dimensionless] thickness: (c)
 Flow adheres to the surface 100
due to friction of airflow and  A basic parameter for relating wind tunnel models to Designed
simulate real-life phenomena on actual objects
surface [viscous flow]
Wake
coefficient of lift: X(0.15) M𝑐/4
 Flow separates and has finite 𝜌∞ V∞ x inertia forces
drag eq. 59 Rex = = (3) INFINITE WING
 Pressure in front surface is μ∞ viscous forces  Wing spans from wall to wall of wind tunnel
greater than the rear surface’s Where:  No wing tips, no vortices (a) Lift – component of R perpendicular to 𝑉∞
y
x= is measured from the leading edge, downstream chord  2 dimensional flow 1
Rex = local Reynold’s number (use x) eq. 65 L = q∞ SCL = 𝜌 V 2 SCL
(2) TYPES OF VISCOUS FLOW
(4) FINITE WING
x
2 ∞ ∞
Rexcr = Reynold’s number of critical point that signifies
Turbulent  Has measurable wing span (b) Drag – component of R parallel to 𝑉∞
transition point (use xcr)
Transition point  Used by actual aircrafts
Transition point
ReL = Reynold’s number for plates measured from the front 1
Laminar  Has wing tips that produces vortices D = q∞ SCD = 𝜌 V 2 SCD
2 ∞ ∞
Laminar Turbulent (use L) eq. 66
 3 dimensional flow
(8) BOUNDARY LAYER THICKNESS (δ) (c) Moment – pressure distribution and shear stress
xcr Cigarette (i) Surface Area (S) distribution causes the tendency to rotate the wing
 Thickens downstream due to friction and shear stress
(a) Laminar Flow  Modifies the effective shape of the airfoil if large eq. 62 S = (b)(c) 1
 enough eq. 67 M = q∞ SCM (c) = 𝜌 V 2 SCM (c)
2 ∞ ∞
Smooth and regular streamlines
(ii) Aspect Ratio (AR)
 Fluid element move smoothly  Reynold’s number vary for different locations
 Gradual change of velocity from zero at surface, to Laminar Turbulent b2 Wing span (d) Normal – component of R perpendicular to chord
eq. 63 AR = (b)
free stream velocity at outer edge of boundary layer
5.2 (x) S Chord (c)
(b) Turbulent Flow 0.37 (x) eq. 68 −−−−− −
 Streamlines breaks-up
eq. 60 δL = eq. 61 δT =
 Fluid elements move randomly, irregularly, and in a Rex (Rex )0.2 (5) AIRFOIL DATA
(e) Axial – component of R parallel to chord
 Presents relation of coefficients of aerodynamic
tortuous fashion AIRFOIL THEORY forces, free stream Mach number, and angle of attack
 Abrupt change of velocity from zero at surface to with respect to Reynold’s number.
eq. 69 −−−−− −
free stream at outer edge of boundary layer
(c) Transition Point [critical point]
Y
Relates the aerodynamic forces through their coefficients
to airfoil geometry with infinite wing span 

Data are different for infinite wing and finite wing
Provides pair of graphs such as:
(f) Other Equations

eq. 70 L = Ncos α − Asin α

 Point xcr where laminar flow becomes turbulent flow (1) AIRFOIL NOMENCALTURE (a) CL and Cmc/4 VS AOA Lift Curve graph
eq. 71 D = Nsin α + Acos α
(3) REGIONS OF FLOW Upper Camber
Thickness
(b) CD and Cmc/4 VS AOA Drag Curve graph
Mean Camber Line (7) SKIN FRICTION DRAG (D𝑓 )
(a) Region with friction = boundary layer Leading
(b) Region of frictionless flow = free stream airflow, Trailing  Caused by viscous flow, specifically friction and shear
Edge Cambered Airfoil Symmetrical Airfoil
unaffected by boundary layer [a.k.a. Potential flow] Edge stress
[Asymmetrical]
(4) BOUNDARY LAYER (i) Local Skin Friction Coefficient (C𝑓x )
 Introduced by Ludwig Prandtl in 1904 Camber Chord Line  Used to compute for local shear stress and not
 The layer is brought by the viscous flow due to friction Lower
Chord (c) drag force
Camber
between the airflow and the surface, causing it to
CL max CL max eq. 72 τω = (C𝑓x )(q∞ )
adhere to the surface, creating shear stress then skin
friction drag. (a) Leading Edge – most forward face CL CL Stalling Laminar
Stalling Turbulent
(b) Trailing edge – most rearward face eq. 73 eq. 74
b (c) Chord line – line connecting leading edge and trailing 0.664 0.592
edge
C𝑓xL = C𝑓xT =
(d) Chord – measurement of chord line
Rex (Rex )0.2
𝜏𝑤 a Boundary (e) Mean Camber Line – line where points of upper and α
Layer αL=0 α (ii) Total Skin Friction Coefficient (C𝑓 )
lower camber are equidistant to each other
αcr αL=0 αcr 
a = surface b = outer boundary layer (f) Camber – measurement of deviation of mean line from Use to compute for drag force
chord line. Turbulent
 Pressure at “a“ is equal to pressure at “b”, allowing  Reynold’s number (Re) has no effect on lift curve eq. 75 Laminar eq. 76
(2) NACA NOMENCALTURE
inviscid equations to be used for the viscous boundary
 NACA = National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
slope, but significant for the occurrence of stalling 1.328 0.074
layer, a to b.  Stalling: airflow separation where there is a drastic C𝑓L = C𝑓T =
(5) VELOCITY PROFILE
(Predecessor of NASA)
loss of lift with a significant increase in drag ReL (ReL )0.2
4 Digit NACA Airfoil  α = angle of attack (AOA)
 Gives variation of velocity (V) in boundary layer as a
 αL=0 = angle of attack where lift is zero (iii) Skin Friction Drag on one surface (D𝑓 )
function of height (y) ; different for each location. NACA X X XX
 αcr = critical angle of attack where 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 occurs;  Substitute 𝐶𝑓 to eq. 66 for skin friction drag
Vb = V∞ XX
y Thickness: (c) the highest possible lift coefficient. Exceeding αcr 1
100 leads to stalling angle. eq. 77 D𝑓 = q∞ SC𝑓 = 𝜌 V 2 SC𝑓
dV Location of X  ∝O = lift curve slope for infinite wing (sub O) 2 ∞ ∞
lim
y→0 dy max camber: 10 (c) (iv) Total Skin Friction Drag (D𝑓T )
Va = 0 dCL change in CL [per degree
∝O = = or  Skin friction drag on all surfaces
Fluid layers Velocity Velocity Profile eq. 57
Max camber X eq. 64 dα change in AOA
thickness: (c) per radian] eq. 78 D𝑓T = (D𝑓 )(# of Surfaces)
Profile over an airfoil 100
(8) SUBSONIC PRESSURE DRAG (DP ) (10) SUBSONIC LIFT (L) (12) SUPERSONIC PRESSURE DRAG (DP ) (b) Normal Force
 Computed separately for each surface (c) Axial Force
 Caused by adverse pressure gradient over surface  Generated by the difference of pressure in the upper eq. 93
 The following pressure coefficients are for free stream and lower surface with respect to chord  Acts normal to the surface 4α eq. 94 4α2
subsonic regimes only  Integration of pressure coefficient, where it is the net CN = CA =
−2(θ)
M∞ 2 − 1
eq. 88
 Acts normal to the surface Px − P∞ eq. 79 area between curves of upper and lower CP divided by CP = M∞ 2 − 1
(i) For M ≤ 0.3 CP0 = the chord measurement
[Incompressible flows]
q∞  Generally, lift is component from the normal force as M∞ 2 − 1
(d) For small values of Angle of Attack (α)
(ii) For 0.3 < M ≤ 0.7 CPO a product of the actual surface area and pressure
CP = eq. 80 θ = angle between the surface and the V∞ Wherein : 𝛼 ≤ 𝛿
[Prandt’l-Glauert Rule] eq. 83 TE
1 − M∞ 2 +θ = after an expansion fan eq. 95 CL = CN CD = CN α + CA
(a) Originally L= ( PL − PU ) cosθ ds −θ = after a shock wave
eq. 96
LE
(iii) For 0.7 < M ≤ 0.99 α = angle of attack (i) Lift-Drag Ratio (ii) Lift Curve Slope
Use energy equation Px − P∞ eq. 81 eq. 84 cosθ ds = dx
for the variables of the CP = δ= inclination of surface with respect to chord CL 1 dCL 4
q∞  For flat plates, δ = 0 and θ = 𝛼 eq. 97 = eq. 98 =
equation ds = distance along the surface CD α dα
(iv) Relation of pressure coefficient, free stream Mach from leading edge of the M∞ 2 − 1
(13) NORMAL FORCE (N)
number, and local Mach number. Derive from eq. 81 and θ airfoil
 Separated by the graph created by the pressure (e) Aerodynamic Phenomena for an Ideal Double Wedge
eq. 45 ,applicable for 0.7 < M ≤ 0.99 only. dx = horizontal distance with
k dx respect to chord distribution along the surface, chordwise direction.
eq. 82 1 2 k−1
 Slice parallel to thickness of airfoil so that upper and For CP1 = CP2 ; θ = −𝛿
2 1+ k − 1 M∞ lower surfaces for each front and rear surfaces are
CP = 2 −1 L N α=0 CP3 = CP4 ; θ = 𝛿
paired
k(M∞ )2 1 2
1 + k − 1 Mx  Applicable for both supersonic and subsonic
2 x/c
 Cp = pressure coefficient
x
eq. 89 CN = ( CPU − CPL ) d
 CPO = pressure coefficient for incompressible flow 0 c
 Sub x are local points along the surface Note: Assuming ds = dx as to eq. 83 and eq. 84
 Sub ∞ means free stream
 Prandt’l-Glauert Rule considers the compressibility (14) AXIAL FORCE (A)
effect  Slice parallel to chord of airfoil so that front to rear
 Center of Pressure moves forward as AOA increases parts of each upper and lower surfaces are paired
(9) SUBSONIC AERODYNAMIC PHENOMENA AND eq. 85 𝑥/𝑐 t/c For CP1 ; θ = − δ − α CP3; θ = (δ + α)
RELATIVE FREE STREAM MACH NUMBER (b) For 𝑀 ≤ 0.3 1 y
C = ( CPL − CPU ) dx CA = ( CPF + CPR ) d α < δ CP2 ; θ = − 𝛿 + 𝛼 CP4; θ = (𝛿 − 𝛼)
(i) Critical Mach Number (Mcr ) [Incompressible flows] LO c
eq. 90
c
0 0
 Free stream Mach number wherein a local Mach CLO
number over an airfoil reaches sonic speed for the first
eq. 86 CL =  Flat plates has no axial force
(c) For 0.3 < M ≤ 0.7
time [Mx = 1] [Prandt’l-Glauert Rule] 1 − M∞ 2  CPF = pressure coefficient at front surface
 CPR = pressure coefficient at rear surface
 Mcr happens at a point of minimum pressure, called eq. 87  𝑦 = thickness
x/c
CPcr )
Critical Pressure Coefficient ( 1
(d) For 0.7 < 𝑀 ≤ 0.99 CL = ( CPL − CPU ) dx
 Sub CP = CPcr ; Mx = 1 ; M∞ = Mcr to eq. 82 c 0 (15) LIFT FORCE (L)
 Vertical component, of both Normal and Axial forces,
(ii) Drag Divergence Mach Number ( MDD ) perpendicular to the free stream direction
 Symbolizes the start of transonic drag-rise and  CPU = pressure coefficient at upper surface
 Similar to eq. 70 CP1 = CP4 ; θ = 0
shockwave formation  CPL = pressure coefficient at lower surface For
 Transonic drag rise: abrupt increase in pressure, hence  CL = Lift coefficient CL = CN cos α − CA sin α
 CLO = Lift coefficient for incompressible flow
eq. 91 α=δ CP2 ; θ = −2𝛼 CP3 ; θ = 2𝛼
also an increase in drag.
d (16) WAVE DRAG FORCE (𝐷𝑊 )
CD (11) SUPERSONIC AERODYNAMIC PHENOMENA AND  Caused by the significant pressure increase after the
RELATIVE FREE STREAM MACH NUMBER shockwave.
 Horizontal component, of both Normal and Axial
(a) Shockwave
forces, parallel to the free stream direction
 A Mach wave that causes a compression, an increase in
a b c pressure on the surface after its occurrence, decreasing
 Similar to eq. 71
the velocity. CDW = CN sin α + CA cos α
eq. 92
MCr MDD 1.0 M∞
(b) Expansion Fan For CP1 ; θ = α − δ CP3; θ = (α + δ)
 A fan shaped region that causes an expansion, a (17) DERIVED EQUATIONS FOR IDEAL DOUBLE
(c) decrease in pressure after on the surface after it, SYMMETRIC DOUBLE WEDGE AIRFOIL α > δ CP2 ; θ = − δ + α CP4 ; θ = (α − δ)
(a) Supersonic
M∞ < 1 Bubble M∞ < 1 increasing the velocity. (a) Ideal Supersonic Airfoils
V∞ V∞  Very low thinness to minimize flow deviations,
(c) Effects
M∞ < Mcr  The effects of shock wave and expansion fans can only  Sharp leading edge to ensure shockwave attachment
Mcr < M∞ < M𝐷𝐷 be felt by the surfaces succeeding adjacent to it. If at low supersonic speeds
(d) 1 1
(b) Shock wave there is no surface after the mentioned phenomena,  Maximum thickness at half chord ( t= at c = )
M∞ < 1 then its effects are negligible. 2 2
M∞ < 1 Mx = 1  Symmetry in camber because the effect of camber is
V∞ to induce drag
V∞ (c) Ackeret’s Linearized Theory
 The most ideal supersonic airfoil is a flat plate, and
MDD < M∞  Every succeeding supersonic equations came from
followed by the symmetric equations
M∞ = Mcr Ackeret’s Linearized Theory for flat plates.
Flow separation
WING THEORY 1 (4) CHANGE IN GEOMETRIC ANGLE OF ATTACK (7) TOTAL DRAG
Focuses on the effects of lift-induced drag, (c) Trailing Edge Flap
 Two infinite wings with the same profile (NACA) (a) Profile Drag
caused by downwash from vortices formed by  Deflects air; as the flaps extend, the values of
but have different AR.  Comes from the characteristics of the wings
CLmax increase at lower angle of attacks.
the wing tips of a finite wing.
 Same profile means same “e” and αL=0  Relatively constant with M∞ at subsonic speeds
(1) WING TIP VORTICES  Pressure Drag and Skin Friction Drag (d) Flap Extension Effect
 The tendency of the air to “leak” from high eq. 105 αeff1 = αeff2  Deflects the air while the effective surface area
eq. 118 Dprofile = DP + D𝑓
pressure to lower pressure side of the wing which is increased, there increase in lift; as the flaps
forms a circular motion that trails downstream  Substitute eq. 99 and eq. 102 to eq. 105 eq. 119 CDprofile = CP + C𝑓 extend, the values of CLmax increase at lower
called “vortex”. angle of attacks.
CL 1 1 (b) Parasite Drag
(a) Free Stream Velocity (V∞ ) eq. 106 α1 − α2 = − [rad]
 Velocity ahead of the airfoil πe AR1 AR 2  Profile Drag and Wave Drag (e) Effect of Slats
 Leading edge devices that increases the
eq. 120 De = DP + D𝑓 + Dw
(b) Downwash Velocity (ω) CL 1 1 180 camber of the wing through deflection,
V∞ eq. 107 α1 − α2 = − [deg] eq. 121 CDe = CP + C𝑓 + CDw increasing the values of CLmax as well as its
 Caused by vortices πe AR1 AR 2 π corresponding values of angle of attack.
(c) Total Drag
(c) Local Flow Velocity (V∞L ) ω (5) CHANGE IN TOTAL DRAG  Beneficial for operation requiring high lift with
 Parasite Drag and Induced Drag
 Velocity redirected by V∞L  Two finite wings with the same profile (NACA) but a combination of low speeds, like take-off,
downwash have different dimensions (wingspan b and chord c) eq. 122 DT = DP + D𝑓 + Dw + Di initial climb, approach, and landing.
 Same profile means same “e” and αL=0
(2) ANGLE OF ATTACKS
 Profile Drag is relatively constant with M∞, therefore
eq. 123 CDT = CP + C𝑓 + CDw + CDi (3) AERODYNAMIC OF CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
(a) Geometric Angle of Attack (α) the basis for change is the induced drag. (a) Pressure for Sphere and Cylinders
 Angle observed from the chord line with respect WING THEORY 2  Pressure (P) at any point on the surface of a
to the relative wind (free stream velocity). eq. 108 ∆DT = D1 − D2 (1) SWEPT WINGS circular cylinder
(b) Effective Angle of Attack (αeff )  At subsonic speeds, it increases the Critical Mach Number 1
 Substitute eq. 66 to eq. 108 (Mcr ), bringing it closer to M = 1 at velocity direction
eq. 125 P = P∞ + 𝜌∞ V∞ 2 1 − 4 sin2 θ
 Angle observed from the chord line with respect 2
to the local relative wind (local flow velocity).
eq. 109 ∆CDT = CDi1 − CDi2 (b) Lift Due to Circulation for Cylinder
(c) Induced Angle of Attack (αi ) Chordwise: Mcr = 0.7  r= Radius of Cylinder
 The changed angle from Geometric Angle of  Substitute eq. 104 to eq. 109  N= Rotational Speed
Attack to Effective Angle of Attack CL 2 1 1 Mcr  𝑙= Length of Cylinder
eq. 99 ∆CDT = − Mcrθ = eq. 124
VT = 2πrN
Lift (L)
αeff = α − αi
eq. 110
πe AR1 AR 2 30° cos(θ) eq. 126 Tangential Velocity:

 Substitute eq. 110 to eq. 66 0.7 eq. 127 Circulation: Γ = 2πrVT

2 Mcrθ =

Velocity Component
Induced Drag (𝐷𝑖 ) CL S1 S2 cos(30°) eq. 128 Lift per unit Span: L = 𝜌∞ V∞ Γ∞
eq. 111 ∆DT = q∞ −
πe AR1 AR 2 eq. 130 Total Lift: LT = L (𝑙)
(6) CHANGE IN LIFT CURVE SLOPE
Mcrθ = 0.808
 Relates the finite wings to the infinite wings in terms @ velocity component (c) Normal Force for Flat Plates
of lift curve slope provided that they have the same  A = cross sectional area of plate
profile (NACA); wherein finite is lower than infinite
eq. 131 1
lift curve slope. Normal Force: F = 1.28A 𝜌 V 2
(a) Infinite Wings  At supersonic speeds, the wings should be inside the 2 ∞ ∞
(3) INDUCED DRAG (Di )
 Lift curve slope for infinite wing (∝O ), from eq. 64 Mach cone or Mach Angle (μ) to have lesser wave drag (d) Resultant Forces for Curved Deflecting Surfaces
 It is the horizontal force component of lift that is
created as the angle of attack increases positively,  No vortices means no induced angle (αi = 0), from across the wing.  A = cross sectional area of airstream
eq. 99
as shown above.  θ= angle of deflection in degrees
eq. 100 Di = L sin(αi ) Where: αi in degrees
eq. 112 eq. 113 dCL [per degree
αeff = α ∝O = or eq. 132
Where: αi in radians, only dαeff per radian]
Di = L (αi ) μ
Horizontal Force: FH = 𝜌∞ AV∞ 2 (1 − cosθ)
eq. 101 applicable for small angle of (b) Finite Wings μ μ μ
eq. 133
attacks  Local relative wind (V∞L ) and induced angle of attack Vertical Force: FV = 𝜌∞ AV∞ 2 (sinθ)
(a) Induced Angle of Attack (αi ) is hard to observe visually, then it is reasonable to
eq. 134
 Where “e” is the wing span efficiency factor. use the geometric angle of attack (α) as a basis for lift
(2) FLAPS
Resultant Force: F= FH 2 + FV 2
curve slope for finite wing (α), from eq.64
eq. 102 eq. 103
𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐿 180 eq. 114 eq. 115 dC [per degree  Substitute eq. 132 and eq. 133 to eq.144
αi = [rad] αi = [deg]
αeff = α − αi L
(a) Assuming constant velocity:
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 π ∝= or  increases the values for lift curve slope, even the
dα per radian] angle of attack with no lift.
Front view of Wings Lift Distribution (lift per unit span) (c) Aspect Ratio Correction
 increases CLmax at lower AOA. eq. 135 F = ρ∞ AV∞ 2 2(1 − cosθ)
 Elliptical lift distribution: e=1  From eq. 113, sub eq. 114 where αi ≠ 0 and eq. 102.
 used for take-offs (low AOA) or landing (high AOA)
 Other: e < 1 Then lastly, sub eq. 115
Downwash (ω) which  Where “e” and “AR” are values of the finite wing (b) Flaps Ranked According to their CLmax :
results from given lift ∝O  Boundary Layer Suction at the Top of Airfoil
distribution eq. 116 ∝= ∝ [ (CL ) per radian]  Double Slotted Flap with a Leading-Edge Slat
1+ O  Double-Slotted Flap
(b) Induced Drag Coefficient πeAR  Single-Slotted Flap
 eq. 102 to eq. 101, where L and D are eq. 65 and ∝O  Split Flap
eq. 66, respectively eq. 117 ∝= [ (CL ) per degree]  Plain Flap
𝐶𝐿 2 ∝O 180  Leading Edge Slat
1+
eq. 104 CDi = πeAR π  Airfoil Only
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
AIRCRAFT PROPULSION (2) STREAM THROUGH A PROPELLER PROPELLER EFFICIENCY (3) GENERAL EQUATIONS OF MOTION

(1) JET ENGINE (1) ADVANCED RATIO

 Always rated in thrust: Actuator Disk  Defines propeller efficiency
Streamtube
Streamtube Slipstream
eq. 136 T = ṁair Ve − V∞ + Ae (Pe − P∞ ) 𝝆 V Linear Velocity [Unitless]
𝐏𝟏 𝐏𝟐
eq. 152 J= =
Where: 𝐏 𝐓 𝝆 ND Rotational Velocity
 ṁair = mass flow of incoming air Where:
𝐕 + 𝐯𝟏 𝐕 + 𝐯𝟐  V = Linear Velocity
 Ve = exit velocity ; V∞ = free stream velocity 𝐕
 Pe= exit pressure ; P∞= free stream pressure  N = Rotational Speed
 D = Diameter of Propeller Disc
 Ae = exit area Streamtube Slipstream
Streamtube
(2) RECIPROCATING ENGINE (2) SOLIDITY
 Always rated in power with units of horsepower:  Defines the amount of power a propeller can
Where: absorb to transform into thrust dV
lb ft J Nm  P0 = Total Pressure (constant at free stream and  Solidity is usually based on 75% of radius of disc eq. 162 F‖ = TcosαT − D − Wsinθ = m
1 hp = 550 = 746 Watts or slipstream conditions) ; P01 = P02 dt
s s s  T = Thrust Nc V2
eq. 153 δ= eq. 163 F⊥ = TsinαT + L − Wcosθ = m
(a) Indicated Horsepower (IHP)
 V = Free Stream Velocity 2π𝑟 rc
 Total power developed in the cylinders without
 v1 = Inflow Velocity Where: (4) UNACCELERATED, STEADY, AND LEVEL FLIGHT
accounting for friction losses within the engine  v2 = Outflow Velocity  N = Number of Propeller Blades (a) Equations of Motions
 V + v1 = Velocity at Actuator Disk (Propeller)  c = Local Chord with respect to radius  TR = Thrust Required
eq. 137 IHP = PLANK  V + v2 = Velocity at Slipstream Conditions  r = Radius of Reference (usually 75%) TR D
(3) BERNOULLI ’ S EQUATION
eq. 164 L=W eq. 165 TR = D eq. 166 =
Where: (3) AIRSCREW COEFFICIENTS W L
 P= Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP) per eq. 140 P01 = P02  Parameters for the airscrew (a.k.a. propeller)
(b) Thrust Required
cylinder during a power stroke 1 2 1 where it is related by the advanced ratio; J = 1
W W
 L= Length of Stroke eq. 141 P1 + 𝜌V = P2 + 𝜌(V + v2 )2  Made up of density (𝜌) TR = =
2 2 eq. 167
L D CL CD
 A= Area of Piston Head ; bore = diameter v2 2  Linear Coefficients (sub c) differ from Rotational
 N= Number of Power Stroke for 60 seconds on 1 eq. 142 ∆P = 𝜌V 2 V + Coefficients (base C) CL 2
cylinder [strokes divide by 2 for 4 stroke engines]
2 Linear Rotational eq. 168 TR = qSCDO + qS
Parameter
 K= Number of Cylinders eq. 154 eq. 155 πeAR
(a) Thrust Definition of Pressure
Thrust T = 𝜌V 2 D2Tc T = 𝜌N2 D4 CT (c) Minimum Thrust Required Conditions
(b) Break Horsepower (BHP) eq. 143 TP = (∆P)(A) eq. 156 eq. 157
 Useable Horsepower output Torque Q = 𝜌V 2 D3Qc Q = 𝜌N2 D5 CQ eq. 169
 Q= Torque Where: CL CL 2
 A = area of propeller disc eq. 158 TRmin ∴ CD ∴ CDO = CDi =
eq. 138 BHP = (2π)(Q)(rpm)  Substitute eq. 142 to eq. 143
Power P= 𝜌N3 D5 CP max πeAR
Where:
v2 2
(c) Friction Horsepower (FHP)  𝜌 = Free Stream Density  For (CL CD )max ,from eq. 169
 Horsepower loss to friction between eq. 144 TP = 𝜌V 2 V + (A)  V = Linear Velocity
components, e.g. gears 2
 N = Rotational Speed eq. 170 CL = CDO πeAR eq. 171 CD = 2CDO
(b) Thrust Definition of Momentum  Linear Coefficients (sub c)
eq. 139 BHP = IHP − FHP  Rotational Coefficients (base C)  Substitute eq.170 and eq. 171 to eq.167
eq. 145 F = ṁ∆V ; ∆V = v2
RANKINE-FROUDE MOMENTUM THEORY ELEMENTS OF AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
eq. 146 TM = [𝜌A V + v1 ](v2 ) CDO
(1) PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS eq. 172 TRmin = Dmin = 2W
(1) ASSUMPTION
(c) Relation of Thrust  Weight (W), Lift (L), Drag (D), and Thrust (T) πeAR
 Pressure Increment is constant over the entire
 Aircraft is considered a rigid body
propeller disc eq. 147 TP = TM  Substitute eq.164 to eq.65, then sub eq.170
 No rotating velocities in a slipstream [not applicable v2 (2) PRINCIPAL EQUATIONS
for real flow] V + = V + v1 1 2W 2W
 Air is inviscid and incompressible [based on Bernoulli's 2 (a) Lift eq. 65 L = 𝜌V 2 SCL VTRmin = =
1 2 eq. 173
𝜌SCL
equation] eq. 148 v2 = v1 (b) Drag
𝜌S CDO πeAR
 No discontinuity in velocity across the disc 2 1
 Conservation of Mass [ṁin = ṁout ] eq. 66 D = 𝜌V 2 SCD eq. 159 D = Do + Di Note: eq. 174 VTRmin = VDmin
(4) PROPELLER EFFICIENCY 2
Power Output TV
eq. 167 CDO = CDi
eq. 149 ȠP = = (c) Drag Polar Equation
eq. 175 TRDO = TRDi
Power Input T V + v1  Derived from eq. 123

CL 2
(a) Non-dimensional inflow factor eq. 160 eq. 161
(d) Thrust Available and Maximum Velocity
v1 CD = CDO + CDi CDi = = 𝑘CL 2  Using TR , TA VS Velocity Curve
eq. 150 a= πeAR
V VTRmin ∴ TRmin = TA = W
Where: eq. 176
(b) Non-dimensional outflow factor  CDO = Parasite drag at αL=0 (considered constant)
eq. 177 Vmax ∴ TR = TAmax
1  e = Oswald Efficiency Factor for the whole aircraft
eq. 151 b = v2  CDi = all increments in drag due to lift at αL≠0 Achievable velocities are within the TR , TA curves
2 
 More power would be required to go faster than Vmax
 (4) UNACCELERATED, STEADY, AND CLIMBING FLIGHT (c) Minimum Glide Angle and Maximum Range Conditions
(e) Power Required
 Derived from eq. 209 and eq. 210  Given the condition: t 2 = 2t1 where the origin is h=0
Work F(d) (a) Equations of Motion  t1 = time of climb to reach h1
eq. 178 Power = = = F(V)  A portion of weight becomes a component in the h 1  t 2= time of climb to reach h2
Time t drag direction eq. 211 tanθmin = =
eq. 196 L = Wcosθ eq. 197 TR = D + Wsinθ
R max (CL CD )max h1 2
 For power plants, the force (F) is thrust (T) in eq. 178
2 eq. 222 AC =
(b) Rate of Climb CL CL (2h1 − h2 )
eq. 179 PR = TR V∞ eq. 212 θmin ∴ ∴ CDO = CDi =
 The Vertical Velocity of an aircraft CD max πeAR (6) AIRCRAFT ENERGY
 Derived from eq. 197 by multiplying V∞
 Substitute eq.164 to eq. 65, then eq.167 to eq.179 (a) Energy Height
(d) Gliding Velocity
TV∞ − DV∞  Maximum obtainable height if all kinetic energy is
W 2W 2W 3 CD 2 eq. 198 = V∞ sinθ  Sub eq. 196 to eq. 65, then isolate V converted to the height of potential energy
eq. 180 PR = = W
CL CD 𝜌SCL ρSCL 3 Wherein: 2Wcosθ Total Aircraft Energy PE + KE
eq. 199  V sinθ = Rate of Climb (R/C) eq. 213 Vg = eq. 223 =
 Substitute eq.168 to eq. 179 ∞ 𝜌SCL W W
eq. 200  TV∞ = Power Available (PA )
CL 2 eq. 201  DV∞ = Power Required (PR )
(e) Rate of Descent
V∞ 2
eq. 181 PR = qSCDO + qS V eq. 202  TV∞ − DV∞ = Power Excess (PE) R D = (Vg )(sinθ) He = h +
πeAR eq. 214 eq. 224 g
TV∞ −DV∞
eq. 203  = Specific Power Excess (PES ) (b) Specific Power Excess
(f) Minimum Power Required Conditions W  Sub eq. 212 and eq. 207 in terms of sinθ to eq. 213  Maximum obtainable height if all kinetic energy is
3 Note: Only small AOA of θ < 20° is technically considered converted to the height of potential energy
CL 2
eq. 182 eq. 215
𝐶𝐿 2 as level flight, allowing the usage of formulas for TR ,  Derived from eq. 203
PRmin ∴ CD ∴ 3CDO = CDi = 2Wcosθ CD 2Wcos3 θCD 2
πeAR TA , PR , and PA presented previously RD = cosθ = dh V∞ dV
max 𝜌SCL CL 𝜌SCL 3 eq. 225 PES = +
3 (c) Conditions for Max Rate of Climb
dt g dt
 For (𝐶𝐿 2 CD)max ,from eq. 180  Excess power could be converted to increase R/C
(e) Minimum Rate of Descent Conditions
PEmax thereby increasing the AC, increase acceleration
eq. 183 CL = 3CDO πeAR eq. 184 CD = 4CDO eq. 204 R/Cmax = 3
W
eq. 216
CL 2 CL 2 at level flight, or both.
R/C R Dmin ∴ CD ∴ 3CDO = CDi = 
dh
πeAR = Rate of Climb (R/C)
 Substitute eq.183 and eq. 184 to eq.180 R/Cmax @V∞PEmax max dt
dV
θ (5) CEILINGS 
dt
= Acceleration (a)
4 2W 3CDO πeAR (a) Absolute Ceiling (AC)
eq. 185 PRmin = W (d) For Hodographs (6) RANGE AND ENDURANCE
3 𝜌S πeAR 3  Graph that shows the relation of horizontal and  Zero Excess Power
(a) Concept
vertical velocity  Zero R/C
 Range (R) - total ground distance travelled on air on
 Substitute eq.164 to eq.65, then sub eq.183 (b) Service Ceiling (SC) a tank of fuel [km or mi]
Wherein:
 Ideal for cruising  Endurance (E) - total flying time on a tank of fuel [hr]
 V∞ = Directional Velocity
2W 2W Vv  Vv = Vertical Velocity = R/C  Conditions upon reaching SC according to FAR  Specific Fuel Consumption (c) - amount of fuel
eq. 186 VPRmin = = Propeller Driven Aircraft: 100 ft/min consumed per unit of power or thrust output.
𝜌SCL 𝜌S 3CDO πeAR  Vh =Horizontal Velocity
θ Jet Powered Aircraft: 500 ft/min (b) Equation of Motion
 θ = Angle of Attack
Vh (c) Relation of AC and R/C  The aircraft is considered in cruising flight, meaning
Note: eq. 187 3CDO = CDi Note:  Expression of R/C can be derived on the following unaccelerated, steady, and level conditions.
 Generally, as Altitude increases, Power Excess equation by isolating R/C on one side
eq. 164 L=W eq. 165 TR = D
eq. 188 3TRDO = 3TRDi decreases, meaning Rate of Climb also decreases  Using Similar Triangles:
↑ ALT ≈ ↓ PE ≈ ↓ R/C AC h Power Plant Fluids:
eq. 189 3PRDO = 3PRDi AC eq. 217 = (c) Weight
 Best Angle or Max Angle (𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) ≠ 𝜃𝑅/𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 RCO RCO − RCh AVGas: 6 lb/gal
Kerosene: 6.67 lb/gal
(g) Power Available  Exceeding Best Angle means stalling eq. 226 W1 = WO − Wf
 For Reciprocating Engine, derived from eq. 149 h Wherein: JP-4: 6.6 lb/gal
Oil: 7.5 lb/gal
(5) UNACCELERATED, STEADY, AND UNPOWERED FLIGHT  RCO = Rate of Climb Wherein:
[a.k.a. GLIDING FLIGHT]
eq. 190 PA = ȠP eq. 191 hpA = ȠBHP at Sea Level  WO = Gross Aircraft Weight
(a) Equations of Motion  RCh = Rate of Climb  Wf = Fuel Weight of Aircraft
Where:  Thrust is zero while weight becomes a component RCh RCO at Altitude h
 W1 =Aircraft Weight without fuel
 PA = Power Available ; P = Shaft Brake Power in the thrust or forward direction
 Ƞ= Propeller Efficiency ; hp= Horsepower eq. 205 L = Wcosθ eq. 206 D = Wsinθ (d) Time to Climb (t) (d) Propeller Driven
 From definition of R/C Wf
D Wsinθ Specific fuel c=
(h) Altitude Effects eq. 208 1 1 dh ℎ2
dh eq. 227 Consumption (SFC): BHP(dt)
 eq. 207 = tanθ = =
Useful for relating curves at different altitudes
L Wcosθ L D CL CD eq. 218 R C= eq. 219 dt =
 Sub (ALT) means at standard altitude conditions dt ℎ1 R C PA TV DV
 Sub (O) means at standard sea level conditions (b) Gliding Flight eq. 228 Power : BHP = P = = =
 Substituting eq. 217 in terms of R C = RCh to eq. 219 Ƞ Ƞ Ƞ
eq. 192 h h 1 given that the lower limit or origin is h=0 and upper
eq. 194 eq. 209 tanθ = eq. 210 =
TA(ALT) 𝜌 (ALT)
1 R R CL CD limit is any altitude h Ƞ CL WO
VPR(ALT) 𝜌 O 2 eq. 229 R= ln
= = AC AC c CD W1
TA(O) 𝜌 (O) VPR(O) 𝜌 ALT θ Wherein: t= ln
eq. 220
 R = Range RCO (AC − h)
eq. 193 eq. 195
1 h  h = Height (or altitude)
3
Ƞ CL 2 1 1
hpA(ALT) 𝜌 (ALT) PR(ALT) 𝜌 O 2 AC AC E= 2𝜌S −
= = θ  θ = Gliding Angle eq. 221 t = 2.303 log10 [mins]
eq. 230
c CD WO W1
hpA(O) 𝜌 (O) PR(O) 𝜌 ALT RCO (AC − h)
R
 (e) Jet Powered Aircraft (c) Take-off Performance (8) MANEUVERING FLIGHT
 From Pull-up Maneuver Analysis
Wf (i) Total Take-off Distance (𝑠) (a) Turn Radius (R)
ct = h − hf
Thrust Specific fuel
eq. 231 Consumption (TSFC): TA (dt)  According to FAR 23 & 25 Vf 2  Sub t means centripetal
eq. 257 𝑠𝑎 = eq. 259 R=  Sub g means centrifugal
eq. 244 s = 𝑠𝐿𝑂 + 𝑠𝑎 tanθ 0.2 𝑔
eq. 232 Thrust : TA = TR = D
(ii) Lift-Off Distance (𝑠𝐿𝑂 ) [Ground Roll] Resultant Force = Centripetal Force = Centrifugal Force
eq. 258 hf = R − Rcosθ
1
Ƞ CL 2 2 VLO 2W eq. 267 Fr = CFt = CFg
eq. 233 R= WO − W1 eq. 245 sLO = Wherein:
ct CD ρS 2𝑔Feff  𝜃 = 𝜃𝑓 = 𝜃𝑎 = Pull-up Angle R W V∞ 2
 hf = Flaring Height
𝜃𝑎 eq. 268 Fr = mat =
Ƞ CL WO 2W  Vf = Flaring Velocity 𝜃𝑓 𝑔 R
eq. 234 E= ln eq. 246 VLO = 1.2VSTALL = 1.2  R = Radius of Roll-Out
ct CD W1 𝜌SCLmax hf  Isolating Turn Radius (R) from eq. 268
 g = Obstacle
(f) Conceptual Formulas  h = Height of Obstacle
eq. 269 W V∞ 2
eq. 247 Feff = TA − (D + μ W − L )0.7VLO For Jet: h = 35 ft sf R= [unit : length]
WO
dW WO
VdW For other Aircrafts: h = 50 ft 𝑔 Fr
eq. 235 E= eq. 236 R= (b) Turn Rate (ω)
W1 cP W1 cP  Wherein: (iii) Flare Distance (𝑠𝑓 )  Derived directly from angular velocity
WO
dW WO
VdW 1  With reference to the schematic diagram above
dθ V∞
eq. 237 E= eq. 238 R= eq. 248 L = 𝜌(0.7VLO )2 SCL  Similar to eq. 251 eq. 270 ω= = [unit: deg per sec]
ct P ct P 2 dt R
W1 W1 eq. 260 𝑠𝑓 = Rsinθ
1 ϕ𝐶𝐿 2 (c) Load Factor (n)
(g) Relations of CDO & CDi eq. 249 D = 𝜌 0.7VLO 2 S CD + (iv) Landing Roll (sL ) [Ground Roll] L [unit: g’s]
2 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 eq. 271 n=
1  VTD = Touchdown Velocity W
CL 2 1  Technically at landing: TA = 0
eq. 239 ∴ C = CDi (d) Level Turn
CD max 3 DO  Substituting eq. 246 and eq. 247 to eq. 245
 If Thrust Reversers are employed: TA ⇒ −TA
(i) Condition
 If Spoilers are employed: L = 0
CL
eq. 250
1.44 𝑊 2  Unaccelerated, steady, and level flight
∴ CDO = CDi sLO =
eq. 240
CD 𝑔𝜌SCLmax TA − D + μ W − L VTD 2 W
max 0.7VLO eq. 261 −sL = (ii) Equation of Motion
2gFeff  Weight is equal to the vertical component of lift
3 ( L > W ), creating a centripetal force [front view]
CL 2 (iii) Pull-up Maneuver Distance (𝑠𝑎 ) 2W
eq. 241 ∴ 3CDO = CDi VTD = 1.3VSTALL = 1.3 eq. 272 L cosθ = W
CD max 𝑠𝑎 = Rsinθ
eq. 262
𝜌SCLmax
eq. 251 R
θ
 Conditions above are achieved by deriving the Mother 6.56 (VSTALL )2 (iii) Resultant Force, Turn Radius, and Turn Rate
Equation eq. 241 below in terms of CL ; [dCL = 0] eq. 252 R= eq. 263 Feff = − TA + D + μ W − L
 Using Pythagorean theorem
g 0.7VLO
eq. 253 h h eq. 273 Fr = L2 − W 2 = W n2 − 1 = L sinθ
CL CL
eq. 241 = θ = cos −1 1 −  Wherein:
CD CL 2 R 1 
CDO + 𝑠𝑎 Sub eq. 273 to eq. 269, then eq. 270
πeAR Wherein: eq. 264 L = 𝜌(0.7VTD )2 SCL
 θ = Pull-up Angle 2 V∞ 2 𝑔 n2 − 1
 R = Pull-up Radius 2
eq. 274 R= eq. 275 ω=
(7) TAKE-OFF AND LANDING PERFORMANCE
 h = Height of Obstacle
1 ϕ𝐶𝐿 𝑔 n2 −1 V∞
eq. 265 D= 𝜌 0.7VTD 2 S CD +
(a) Conceptual Formulas For Jet: h = 35 ft 2 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
dV Ft For other Aircrafts: h = 50 ft (iv) Stalling Speeds
F = ma = m ; V=  For straight-level flight [initial phase, before turning]
eq. 242 dt m (d) Landing Performance  Substituting eq. 262 and eq. 263 to eq. 261 1
F eq. 164 L =W= 𝜌V 2 SCL
eq. 243 ds = Vdt ; ds
m
tdt (i) Total Landing Distance (𝑠) eq. 266
1.69 𝑊2 2 ∞
sL =
(b) Ground Effect Correction Factor (ϕ) s = s𝑎 + s𝑓 + sL 2W
eq. 254 𝑔𝜌SCLmax TA + D + μ W − L 0.7VLO eq. 276 VSTALL =
b 2 𝜌SCLmax
16 (ii) Approach Distance (𝑠𝑎 )
h Note:
ϕ= 2
 Equations of Motion from Gliding Flight but with Thrust  Eq. 263 and eq. 266 has already applied the concept  For level-turning flight
b of Thrust Reversers (TA ⇒ −TA ), therefore negative
1 + 16 eq. 205 L = Wcosθ eq. 255 D = T − Wsinθ W 1
h sign for reverse thrust is unnecessary. L = = 𝜌V 2 SCL
cos𝜃 2 ∞
eq. 272
 From eq. 255, isolate sinθ on one side assuming
 Wherein: (e) Friction Coefficients ( 𝜇 )
 h = height of wings from ground L = W because the difference made by cosθ is 𝜇 2W
 b = wingspan relatively small according to Engr. Sudweste
Brakes-off Brakes-on eq. 277 VS ′ =
Surface
(Take-off) (Landing)
𝜌SCLmax cosθ
D T 1 T
eq. 256 sinθ = − ≈ −  Concrete, runway, or wooden deck 0.02 0.5
W W L D W  Hard turf, Level Field 0.04 0.4  Relation of eq. 276 to eq. 277 as the aircraft
 Short Grass 0.05 0.3 transitions from straight to turning level flight
 Long Grass 0.10 0.5
 Soft Grass 0.10-0.30 eq. 278 VSTALL = VS ′ cosθ
 (e) Pull-up Maneuver (ii) Conditions at High Speed Limit (Highest Speed)
(i) Condition  High Performance parameters (nmax , R min , ωmax )
 Unaccelerated and steady flight are limited by the highest velocity possible in the
flight envelope called “high speed limit” to prevent
(ii) Equation of Motion structural damage as shown in the V-n Diagram
below (graph based on a trainer aircraft)
eq. 279 Initially: L=W  Structural damage would be caused by high dynamic
pressure
eq. 280 During Pull-up: L>W 1
 Hence allowing upward maneuver eq. 295 L = 𝜌Vmax 2 CL𝑚𝑖𝑛 > W
2
(iii) Resultant Force, Turn Radius, and Turn Rate

eq. 281 Fr = L − W = W(n − 1)

 Sub eq. 281 to eq. 269 for R, then R to eq. 270 for ω
V∞ 2 g(n − 1)
eq. 282 R= eq. 283 ω=
𝑔(n − 1) V∞
(f) Pull-down Maneuver
(i) Condition
 Aircraft is inverted, making lift contributing to
weight direction
Prepared by : Villapando, Joaquin
(ii) Resultant Force, Turn Radius, and Turn Rate
Yow!
eq. 284 Fr = L + W = W(n + 1)
Kung umabot man sa inyo ang reviewer na ito
 Sub eq. 284 to eq. 269 for R, then R to eq. 270 for ω
2
(Aerodynamics 1 & 2), bigyan natin ng araw-araw na
V∞ g(n + 1) (h) Load Factor Due to Gust ( n ) suporta ang bagong lunsad na clothing brand “Alab Makati”.
eq. 285 R= eq. 286 ω=  Gust is the sudden blow of wind upwards that causes
𝑔(n + 1) V∞
AOA and CL to increase suddenly while having no Link: https://www.facebook.com/alab.mkt
increase in induced drag.
(g) High Performance Aircraft  Induced drag is only affected if there is a gradual Ang Alab Makati ay isang Income Generating Project
 Has high load factor due to high lift-weight ratio: change in CL (IGP) ng full-time community organizers ng Makati na may
layuning pondohan ang mga aktibidades at operasyon nito.
eq. 287 n+1≈n eq. 288 n−1≈n kUV ∝
eq. 296 n=1+
 Therefore for Turn Radius and Turn Rate of all 575 (W S) Maipapakita natin ang suporta sa ating full-time
community organizers sa pamamagitan ng paglike ng page,
Maneuvering Flights Wherein: pagshare ng posts, at pagbili ng mga merchandises.
V∞ 2 𝑔n  U= Gust Velocity
eq. 289 R= eq. 290 ω=  V= Airspeed Maari rin mag-abot ng tulong pinansyal sa Gcash:
𝑔n V∞ W 09267172464 KHATRINA CADIENTE
 = Wing Loading 09994144148 JOAQUIN GABRIEL VILLAPANDO
S
(i) Conditions at Stalling Speed (Lowest Speed)  ∝ = Finite Wing Lift-Curve Slope from eq. 115 At lagyan ng mensahe na “alab”
1
eq. 291 L = 𝜌Vstall 2 CLmax > W dCL CL2 − CL1 180 Taos puso kaming nagpapasalamat sa pagtangkilik at sa
2 eq. 297 ∝= = lahat ng tulong na maibibigay <3
(ii) Max Load Factor
dα α2 − α1 π
 Sub eq. 291 to eq. 271 ###
 𝑘 = Gust Correction Factor
1
L 𝜌Vstall 2 CLmax 1
4
eq. 292 nmax = = 2 1 W W
W W/S eq. 298 k= For ≤ 16 psf
2 S S
(iii) Minimum Turn Radius
 Sub eq. 292 to eq. 289
2.67 W
Vstall 2 2 W eq. 299 k = 1.3 − 3
For > 16 psf
R min = = S
eq. 293 𝑔nmax 𝑔ρCLmax S (W S)4
(iv) Max Turn Rate
(g) Limit Load Maneuvering Factor ( n )
 Sub eq 291 in terms of V and eq. 292 to eq. 290
 W= Weight of Aircraft
eq. 294
Vstall gnmax 𝜌nmax CLmax 24 000
ωmax = = =𝑔 eq. 300 n = 2.1 +
R min Vstall 2(𝑊 𝑆) W + 10 000
Note: High Performance Aircraft means Wherein:
 For normal category, it can reach n = 3.8
W  For utility category, it can reach n = 4.4
↓ =↑ n =↓ R =↑ ω
S  For aerobatic category, it can reach n = 6.0