MEMORY

MEMORY

MAR MDR CONTROL

PC R0
. ALU
R1
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IR
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R(n-1)

N general purpose registers

PROCESSOR
PROCESSOR
INPUT OUTPUT MEMORY PROCESSOR
Memory Locations and Addresses
Memory consists of many millions of
storage elements
One storage element can store one bit of
information
Memory is organized so that a group of n
bits (referred as word ) can be stored or
retrieved
n bits

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b31 b30 … b1 b0

Sign bit: b31 = 0 for positive numbers

b31 = 1 for negative numbers

(a) A signed integer

8 bits 8 bits 8 bits 8 bits

ASCII ASCII ASCII ASCII

Character Character Character Character

(b) Four characters

 0
1 k – no. of address bits
.
. 24 address bits
. generates an address
space of 2^24 (16 M)
locations

2^10 – 1K (1 Kilo = 1024)

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. 2^20 – 1M (1 Mega)
. 2^30 – 1G (1 Giga)
2^40 – 1T (1 Tera)

2^k - 1
 Byte Addressability
a byte is 8 bits
the word length typically ranges from 16 to
64 bits
successive addresses refer to successive
byte locations in the memory (generally
used in computers)
Byte locations have addresses 0,1,2,.....
If the word length is 32 bits, successive
words are located at addresses 0,4,8,......
with each word consisting of four bytes.
Word
Address Byte Address Byte Address

0 0 1 2 3 0 3 2 1 0

4 4 5 6 7 4 7 6 5 4

. .
. .
. .

2^k- 2^k- 2^k- 2^k- 2^k- 2^k- 2^k- 2^k-

2^k-4 4 3 2 1 2^k-4 1 2 3 4

(a) Little-endian assignment (b) Big-endian assignment

 Instructions and Instruction
Sequencing
A computer must have instructions to
perform four types of operations:
 Data transfers between the the memory and the
processor registers
 Arithmetic and Logical operations on data
 Program sequencing and control
 I/O transfers
Two notations of instructions
 Register transfer notation
 Assembly language notation
Register Transfer Notation

R1 ← [LOC]
The contents of memory location LOC are transferred
into processor register R1

R3 ← [R1] + [R2]

PLACE ← [R2]
Assembly Language Notation

Move LOC, R1

Add R1,R2,R3

Move R2, PLACE

 Basic Instruction Types
C = A+B -------- HLL statement

C← [A] + [B] -------- RTN

assuming this is done in single machine

instruction
Add A,B,C ---------ALN

general instruction of this type has the format

(three address instruction)
Operation Source1, Source2, Destination
 Basic Instruction Types
Use of a sequence of simpler instructions (two
address instructions)

Add A,B
Move B, C

in RTN
B ← [A]+[B]
C ← [B]
general instruction of this type has the format
Operation Source, Destination
 Basic Instruction Types
Some machine instructions specify only one
operand.
When the second operand is needed, it is
understood implicitly to be in a unique
location, generally accumulator (a
processor register) is used
they become one address instructions
Add LOC
Load PLACE
Store PLACE
Basic Instruction Types
C= A+B
↓
Load A
Add B
Store C
 Basic Instruction Types
Use of processor registers allows faster
accessing and results in shorter instructions
Load A, Ri or Move A, Ri
Store Ri, LOC or Move Ri,LOC
and
Add LOC, Ri
 Basic Instruction Types
C= A+B

Move A,Ri Move A,Ri

Move B,Rj Add B, Ri
Add Ri,Rj Store Ri, C
Store Rj, C
•Transfers that involve the memory are much slower than
transfers within the processor.
•A substantial increase in speed is achieved when processor
registers are utilized effectively.
 Instruction Execution and Straight-Line
Sequencing
C = A+B -------- HLL statement

C← [A] + [B] -------- RTN

Assumptions we make
◦ Compiler allows one memory operand per instruction

◦ Word length is 32 bits and the memory is byte addressable

◦ Single word instruction can include a full memory address

The three instructions are in successive word locations,

starting at location i
 A program for C =[A]+[B]
Address Contents
Begin execution here i Move A,R0
i+4 Add B,R0 3-Instruction
program segment
i+8 Move R0,C
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Data for the
B program
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C
 Execution of the program
To begin execution of the program, the address
of its first instruction (i in this case) is placed into
the PC.
Processor fetches and executes the first
instruction using the information available in PC.

Duringthe execution first instruction, PC is

incremented by 4 to point next instruction.

Instructions are executed one at a time in the

order of increasing addresses. This is called
Straight-Line Sequencing
 Execution of the program
Executing an instruction is a two-phase procedure
◦ First Phase – Instruction Fetch
 Instruction is fetched from the memory location whose address is in the
PC
 And placed in Instruction Register (IR)
◦ Second Phase – Instruction Execute
 Instruction is decoded to determine the operations to be performed.
 The specified operations are performed by the processor. This involves
 Fetching operands from memory or from processor registers
 Arithmetic and logical operations
 Storing results into memory or registers
◦ At some point during this two-phase procedure, the PC is
incremented to point the next instruction to be exexcuted
 i Move NUM1,R0
i+4 Add NUM2,R0

i+8 Add NUM3,R0

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i+4n-4 Add NUMn,R0

i+4n Move R0,SUM

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SUM
NUM1
NUM2
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NUMn
 Branching
The program sequence is changed form straight-
line sequencing by a branching instruction
Previous example can be done using LOOP
Loop is repeated as many times as the numbers
to be added
To check whether all numbers added a counter
variable is used and it is imitated with the count of
numbers to be added
Each time the loop executed next number is
added and the count is decremented by 1.
The loop is repeated until the count becomes 0. to
do this a conditional branch instruction is used
 Move N,R1
Clear R0
Determine address
LOOP
of “Next” number
and add “Next”
Program
number to R0
Loop
Decrement R1
Branch>0 LOOP
Move R0,SUM
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SUM
N n
NUM1
NUM2
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NUMn
 Condition Codes
Processor keeps track of the
information about the results of
operations for use by subsequent
conditional branch instruction.
Those information bits are called
condition code flags and they are saved
as a group in a register called condition
code register or status register.
Individual condition code flags are set to
1 or cleared to 0 depending on the
outcome of the operation
Four commonly used flags are
◦ N (Negative) -Set to 1 if the result is negative;
otherwise cleared to 0

◦ Z (Zero) -Set to 1 if the result is 0; otherwise

cleared to 0

◦ V (Overflow) - Set to 1 if arithmetic overflow

occurs; otherwise cleared to 0

◦ C (Carry) - Set to 1 if a carry results from the

operation; otherwise cleared to 0
 Addressing Modes
Addressing means the way to specify
the address of an operand.
The different ways (flexible) of
addressing are called addressing
modes.
The details differ from one computer
to other, but the concepts are the
same.
 Name Assembler Syntax Addressing Function

Immediate #value Operand=value

Register Ri EA=Ri
Absolute(Direct) LOC EA=LOC
Indirect (Ri) EA=[Ri]
(LOC) EA=[LOC]
Index X(Ri) EA=[Ri]+X
Base with index (Ri,Rj) EA=[Ri]+[Rj]
Base with index X(Ri,Rj) EA=[Ri]+[Rj]+X
and offset
Relative X(PC) EA=[PC]+X
Auto increment (Ri)+ EA=[Ri];
Increment Ri;
Auto decrement -(Ri) Decrement Ri;
EA=[Ri]

EA=Effective address Value= a signed number

Variables and Constants
◦ They are simplest data types
◦ In assembly language, a variable is represented
by allocating a register or a memory location to
hold its value
◦ Constants are represented in the instruction itself
Immediate addressing
◦ The operand is given explicitly in the instruction
◦ Constants are represented using Immediate
addressing
For example,
Move #200,R0
Add #6, R1
Register Addressing
◦ The operand is the content of a
processor register; the name(address)
of the register is specified in the
instruction
For example,
Add R1,R0
Absolute Addressing (Direct
Addressing)
◦ The operand is in a memory location;
the address of this location is given
explicitly in the instruction
For example,
Move LOC,PLACE
In the following example,
Move LOC,R1
Both register and absolute addressing
mode are used.
Example: A = B+6 --- ‘C’ statement
In assembly language
Move B, R0
Add #6,R0
Move R0,A
Indirect Addressing
◦ The instruction does not give the operand or its
address explicitly
◦ Information about the memory address of the
operand is given in the instruction
◦ This address is called effective address (EA) of
the operand
◦ Effective address of the operand is the content of
register or memory location whose address is
given in the instruction
EA=[Ri]
EA=[LOC]
For Example,
Add (A), R0
Move (R1),R2
 Add (R1),R0 Add (A),R0
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B Operand A B
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R1 B Register B Operand

(a) Through a general-purpose register (b) Through a memory location

 Use of indirect addressing in the program discussed
before

Address Contents

Move N,R1

Move #NUM1,R2 Initialization

Clear R0

LOOP Add (R2),R0

Add #4,R2

Decrement R1
Data in memory
Branch>0 LOOP
SUM
Move R0,SUM
N n
NUM1
NUM2
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NUMn
◦ The register or the memory location that
contains the address of operand is called
pointer
◦ Indirect Addressing through registers are
used extensively.
◦ But Indirect Addressing through memory
location is seldom used, because it
involves accessing memory twice to get
an operand
Index Addressing
◦ It is useful in dealing with lists and arrays
◦ The Effective Address of the operand is
generated by adding a constant value to the
contents of register
For example,
Add X(Ri), Rj
The EA of first operand is [Ri]+X
 Add 20(R1),R2
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1000 1000 R1
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20=Offset
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1020 Operand
INDEXED
(a) Offset is given as a constant
Add 1000(R1),R2
ADDRESSING
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1000 20 R1
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20=Offset
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1020 Operand

(b) Offset is in the index register

 AALIST
LISTOF
OFSTUDENTS’
STUDENTS’MARKS.
MARKS.

N n
LIST Student ID
LIST + 4 Test 1
Student 1
LIST + 8 Test 2
LIST + 12 Test3
LIST + 16 Student ID
Test 1
Student 2
Test 2
Test3
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INDEXED ADDRESSING USED IN ACCESSING TEST SCORES
IN THE LIST IN THE PREVIOUS FIGURE

Move #LIST,R0
Clear R1
Clear R2
Clear R3
Move N,R4

LOOP Add 4(R0),R1

Add 8(R0),R2
Add 12(R0),R3
Add #16,R0
Decrement R4
Branch>0 LOOP
Move R1,SUM1
Move R2,SUM2
Move R3,SUM3
Relative Addressing
◦ The Effective Address is determined by the Index
mode using the Program Counter in place of the
general purpose register
For Example,
Branch>0 -16(PC)
Auto increment Addressing
◦ The Effective Address of the operand is the
contents of a register specified in the instruction.
After accessing the operand, the contents of this
register are automatically incremented to point
the next item in the list
For Example,
Add (R1)+, R0
Address Contents

Move N,R1

Move #NUM1,R2 Initialization

Clear R0

LOOP Add (R2)+, R0

Decrement R1
Data in memory
Branch>0 LOOP
SUM
Move R0,SUM
N n
NUM1
NUM2
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NUMn
Auto decrement Addressing
◦ The contents of a register specified in the
instruction are first automatically decremented
and are then used as the effective address of the
operand
For Example,
Add -(R1), R0