 Different plants can have different types of

roots:
◦ Tap roots consist of a main root with lateral roots
coming off of it e.g. dandelions
◦ Fibrous roots consist of equal sized roots growing
from the base of the stem e.g. grasses.
 The functions of the root system are to:
◦ Anchor the plant in the soil.
◦ Absorb water and minerals from the soil.
 This is carried out by root hairs.
◦ Transport absorbed materials to the shoots.
◦ Store food (in some plants e.g. carrots and turnips).
1. Zone of protection – the root cap protects
the root cells as they push through the soil.
2. Zone of cell production (meristematic zone) –
new cells are produced in this zone by
mitosis.
◦ A meristem is a plant tissue capable of mitosis.
◦ Apical meristems are found in the root tip and the
shoot tip.
3. Zone of elongation – the new cells increase in
size.
4. Zone of differentiation – the similar cells
develop into different types of tissues.
 The shoot system consists of the:
 Stem – this supports the aerial parts of the
plant, transports water and minerals to the
leaves and transports food from the leaves.
◦ Herbaceous plants don’t have a woody stem.
◦ Woody plants do i.e. they contain lignin.
 Apical (terminal) buds – increase the stem
length.
 Lateral buds – grow side branches.
 Lenticels – are openings for gas exchange.
 Leaves – have veins which contain vascular
tissue. Leaves take part in photosynthesis,
gas exchange, transpiration and food
storage.

 Flowers – take part in sexual reproduction.

 The three types of tissue formed during
differentiation are:
◦ Dermal tissue – forms a protective layer on plants,
it can have a waxy cuticle to prevent water loss.
 Root hairs have no cuticle so they can absorb water
and minerals easily.
◦ Ground tissue – makes up the bulk of the plant and
is found between dermal and vascular tissues. It is
used for photosynthesis, storage of food and
support.
◦ Vascular tissue – consists of xylem and phloem
tissues and is used to transport materials
throughout the plant.
 Xylem tissue is made up of cells called
vessels and tracheids.
◦ These cells die before they reach maturity i.e. they
contain no living parts.
 Xylem tracheids are long hollow cells that are
tapered at each end.
◦ They are found in coniferous trees e.g. pine trees.
 Xylem vessels are tubular structures formed
when a number of cells join end-to-end.
◦ They have no end walls and form a continuous
tube.
◦ They are common in flowering plants.
 Xylem tracheids and vessels both have:
◦ Pits – these are thin parts of the wall that allow
water to pass from one cell to another.
◦ Lignin – this is a hard, strong chemical found in the
cell walls that gives them strength.
 Xylem transports water and minerals from the
roots to the leaves and gives support to the
plant.
 It is usually found in vascular bundles in
roots, stems, leaves and flowers.
 Phloem tissue is composed of sieve tubes and
companion cells.
 Sieve tubes are long tubular structures that
form when cells called sieve tube elements
join end-to-end.
◦ The end walls (sieve plates) of the cells develop
pores which allow the movement of materials from
one cell to another.

 Each sieve tube element has a companion cell

on its outside which controls the sieve tube
elements.
 Phloem transports food made during
photosynthesis from the leaves to the rest of
the plant.

 Phloem is found in the vascular bundles of

roots, stems, leaves and flowers.
Roots
TS of root

LS of root
Stems
TS of stem

LS of stem
Leaves

TS of leaf
 Flowering plants are divided into two
categories:
◦ Monocotyledons (monocots)
◦ Dicotyledons (dicots)

 A cotyledon is a leaf found in seeds that is

specialised for storing food.
 Monocots have the following features:
◦ They have one seed leaf (cotyledon) in each seed.
◦ They are mostly herbaceous plants i.e. they are soft
or do not contain woody parts.
◦ Their leaves are long, narrow and have parallel
veins.
◦ Their vascular bundles are scattered at random in
the stem.
◦ Their flowering parts have petals in multiples of
three.

 A tulip is an example of a monocot.

 Dicots have the following features:
◦ They have two seed leaves (cotyledons) in each
seed.
◦ They may be herbaceous or woody plants.
◦ Their leaves are broad and have a network of veins.
◦ Their vascular bundles are arranged in a ring
around the inside of the stem.
◦ Their flowering parts have petals in multiples of
four or five.

 A rose is an example of a dicot.