BIOMOLEKULER

30 AGUSTUS 2017
 DOSEN PENGAMPU

ANNA SAFITRI
ARIE SRIHARDYASTUTIE
AULANNI’AM
 PUSTAKA
• 1. Garret, R. H. and Grisham, C. M., 2013, Biochemistry,
5th Ed., Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning, Belmont: USA.;
Lewin, B. 2004, Genes VIII, Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddler River, NJ: USA.
• 2. Elliot, W. H. and Elliot, D. C., 2009, Biochemistry and
Molecular Biology, 4th Ed., Oxford University Press, New
York: USA.
 SILABUS BIOKIMIA MOLEKULER:
• Pendahuluan, DNA dan RNA sebagai molekul hereditas
• Struktur dan karakterisasi asam nukleat
• metabolisme asam nukleat
• Replikasi DNA
• Transkripsi pada prokariota dan eukariota
• Translasi pada prokariota dan eukariota
• UTS
• pengendalian ekspresi genetik pada sel eukariot dan Prokariota
• Kerusakan DNA (Mutasi dan Repair DNA)
• DNA rekombinan
• Rekayasa genetika
• UAS
 DNA
Scientists call
this the: RNA

Protein
 Role of the genetic material
“A genetic material must carry out two
jobs: duplicate itself and control the
development of the rest of the cell in a
specific way.”
-Francis Crick
 DNA
THE CODE OF LIFE

The Molecular Basis

of Inheritance
 DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid
The information necessary to
sustain and perpetuate life is
found within a molecule. This is
the genetic material that is
passed from one generation to
the next---a blue print for
building living organisms.
 HISTORY
Although we now accept the idea that DNA
is responsible for our biological structure,
But in the early 1800s it was unthinkable
for the leading scientists and Philosophers
that a chemical molecule could hold enough
information to build a human. They believed
that plants and animals had been
specifically designed by a creator.
 HISTORY
Charles Darwin is famous for challenging
this view. In 1859 he published
'The Origin of Species‘
expressing that living things
might appear to be designed,
but were actually the result
of natural selection.
Darwin showed that living
creatures evolve over several
generations through a series
of small changes.
 HISTORY
In the 1860s Darwin's ideas were supported
when genetics was discovered by
Gregor Mendel.
He found that genes
determine the characteristics a living thing
will take. The genes are passed on to later
generations, with a child taking genes from
both its parents. The great mystery was
where and how is this information stored?
 HISTORY
The main conclusions made by Mandel were:
*SEGREGATION:
Inherited traits are controlled by genes, which are in
pairs. When sex cells are created one gene from each
pair goes into the gamete. When two gametes fuse at
fertilization, the offspring has two copies of each
gene—one from each parent.
*INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT:
The genes for different traits are sorted into gametes
independently of other genes. So one inherited trait is
not dependent on another.
*DOMINANCE:
Where there are two different forms of a gene are
present in a pea plant, the one which is dominant is the
one that is observed.
 HISTORY
Search for genetic material:
In 1870, a German scientist named Friedrich
Miescher had isolated the chemicals
found in the nucleus.
These were proteins and nucleic acids. While he
found these nucleic acids interesting, and spent a
great deal of time studying their chemical
composition, he wasn’t alone in
believing that proteins were more likely to be the
chemicals involved in inheritance, because of their
immense variability.
They were made up of 20 different building blocks
(amino acids), as opposed to the mere 4 building
blocks of nucleic acids.
 SEARCHING FOR GENETIC
• Gregor Mendel MATERIAL
(1866):
• discovered that
inherited traits are
determined by
discrete units, or
'genes,’ - passed on
from the parents.
• Freidrich
Miescher(1868):
• discovered DNA
• Isolated something
new from the nuclei of
eukaryotic cells
• Later called DNA!!!
 HISTORY
Search for genetic material:
1928 Frederick Griffith: transforming principle
 GRIFFITH’S EXPERIMENT WITH
PNEUMONIA AND THE ACCIDENTAL
DISCOVERY OF TRANSFORMATION
• Frederick Griffiths was a bacteriologist
CONCLUSION:
studying pneumonia
• He discovered two types of bacteria:
• Smooth colonies
The smooth colonies
• Rough colonies
must carry the disease!
 NON-
VIRULENT
VS.
VIRULENT
BACTERIA

ROUGH: SMOOTH:
harmless kill
 NOT BAD/HARMFUL
HARMFUL/BENIGN
 GRIFFITH'S TRANSFORMATION
EXPERIMENT
• Used the Pneumococcus bacteria
• Include 2 types:
• a virulent S strain with a Smooth coat
• kills mice
• a non-virulent R Rough strain
• does not kill mice.
• Heat destroys (kills) living cells!!!
• When heated Smooth (harmful) cells (DEAD) are
mixed with living Rough (benign) cells and
injected into mice, the mouse dies.
• WHY?
 GRIFFITH’S EXPERIMENT WITH
PNEUMONIA AND THE ACCIDENTAL
DISCOVERY OF TRANSFORMATION
• When heat was applied to the
deadly smooth type…
• And injected into a mouse…
• The mouse lived!
Griffith’s Experiment with Pneumonia
and the accidental discovery of
Transformation
• Griffith injected the heat-killed type and the
non-deadly rough type of bacteria.
• The bacteria “transformed” itself from the heated
non-deadly type to the deadly type.
SEARCHING FOR GENETIC
MATERIAL
 HISTORY
Search for genetic material:
It wasn’t until 1944 that Oswald Avery and his
colleagues, who were studying the bacteria which
causes pnuemonia, Pneumococcus, discovered by
process of elimination that bacteria contain nucleic
acids, and that DNA is the chemical which carries genes.
Despite the conclusive results of Avery’s experiments,
the theory of nucleic acids being the genetic
material was still not a popular one, but experiments
Performed with viruses also showed that nucleic
acids were the genetic material and this confirmed
Avery’s work.
 SEARCHING FOR GENETIC MATERIAL
Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, &
Maclyn McCarty (1944):
• Reported that “transforming agent” in
Griffith's experiment was DNA.
• Also used the Pneumococcus
bacteria and test tubes (NOT mice)
 AVERY, MCCARTY, AND MACLEOD
REPEATED GRIFFITH’S EXPERIMENT

Oswald Avery Maclyn McCarty Colin MacLeod

 THE AVERY, ET AL. EXPERIMENT

• Used S (harmful) strain

• Opened up the cells
• Isolated
• DNA, proteins and other materials SEPERATELY
• Mixed R bacteria with these different materials
• Only those mixed with DNA were transformed into S bacteria.

OTHER S
S DNA S PROTEINS CELL PARTS
+ + (sugar/RNA)
R Bacteria R Bacteria +
R Bacteria
TEST
TUBES
  
 Avery, McCarty, and MacLeod
Added the non-deadly Rough Type of Bacteria to the
Heat-Killed Smooth Type

To the Heat-Killed Smooth Type,

added enzymes that destroyed…
Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins RNA DNA
 S-Type
S-Type Carbohydrates S-Type Lipids Proteins S-Type RNA S-Type DNA
Destroyed Destroyed Destroyed Destroyed Destroyed

Conclusion:
DNA was the
transforming factor!
 THE HERSHEY-CHASE EXPERIMENT
Protein coat
Alfred Hershey & Martha
Chase worked with a
bacteriophage:

A virus that invades

bacteria. It consists of a
DNA core and a protein
coat

DNA
• Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase 1952

• used bacteriophage (a virus) to prove that

DNA was the hereditary material

• the bacteriophage was the ideal organism for

settling the debate between protein and DNA.
 WHAT ARE VIRUSES?

Viruses are
organized
associations of
macromolecules:-
nucleic acid
contained within a
protective shell of
protein units .

A virus is NOT alive.

A virus is NOT made out of a cell.
 A bacteriophage is a virus that
infects bacteria
DNA
inside
protein
coat

Hollow
sheath

Question: what
Tail infects the
fiber bacterium, the
protein or the
DNA?
DNA DISCOVERY HERSHEY-CHASE
1952
DNA DISCOVERY HERSHEY-CHASE
1952
 HISTORY
Search for genetic material:
1952 - Hershey-Chase Experiment
virus particle
labeled with 35S Hershey
Harvey andand
DNA being
Chase show
injected into
bacterium protein does
not infect the
bacterium

35Sremains
outside cells
virus particle
labeled with 32P

DNA being injected

into bacterium

Hershey
Harvey andand
Chase show
DNA infects
the bacterium

32P remains inside cells

 THE HERSHEY-CHASE RESULTS
REINFORCED THE AVERY, MCCARTY,
AND MACLEOD CONCLUSION:
DNA carries the genetic code!

However, there were still

important details to uncover…
 HOW DID DNA:
1. STORE INFORMATION?
2. DUPLICATE ITSELF EASILY?

These questions would be

answered by discovering
DNA’s structure