EASC1081

SOIL MECHANICS

Bishwajit Chowdhury, PhD

 WEEK 5
- SOIL COMPACTION
- CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 SOIL COMPACTION
 What is soil compaction
 Why is compaction important
 How to measure the degree of compaction
 Compaction characteristics of soils
 Factors affecting the degree of compaction
 Lab test for compaction
 Analysing the laboratory compaction test result
 Summary

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 SOIL COMPACTION
 Compaction: densification of soil by reducing the
amount of air voids through mechanical loadings

 Decrease in volume due to removal of water is called

consolidation

 Focus of this experiment: compaction of soil through

the removal of air void

 The test used to study the compaction behaviour of

soil is called Proctor Compaction Test

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

SOIL COMPACTION IN THE FIELD
Sheep foot rollers

Rammers

Vibratory plates Dynamic Compaction

Smooth-wheeled rollers

 Different equipments for different requirements

 Common objective is same in all cases
Rubber-tyred rollers  increasing density by removing air voids
EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY
 WHY IS SOIL COMPACTION IMPORTANT?

 Increase the strength of soil

 Reduce the settlement of soil due to loading
 Reduce permeability of the soil
 Reduce shrink/swell potential
 Reduce erosion damage

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

SOIL COMPACTION PROCESS

Volume change
Load

Air
Air
SOIL MATRIX

COMPRESSED
Water Water

SOIL
Solids
Solids

Mass is remaining the same

Mass = MT1 Mass = MT1
Volume = VT1 Volume = VT2
Air volume is changing due to loading
rsoil (1) = MT1 MT1
rsoil (2) = V
VT1 VT2 < VT1
T2

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 MEASURING THE DEGREE OF COMPACTNESS
 Take a container having a fixed volume V
 Then put different amounts of soil in the container

Which one is more compact?

Volume = V Volume = V Volume = V

Case-1 Case-2 Case-3
 Most compact: Case-3 because it includes highest amount of solid
 Compactness: how much solid particles can be packed in a given volume
EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY
 MEASURING THE DEGREE OF COMPACTNESS
 Need to monitor a quantity that measures the amount of solid in a
given volume
 Such a quantity is dry unit weight
 Dry unit weight measures the amount of solid in unit volume

Air

Water

Solids

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

EFFECT OF COMPACTION ON THE DEGREE
OF SATURATION AT A GIVEN MOISTURE CONTENT
Decrease in volume is due to removal of air
Increasing compaction

Air Air
Air No air left

Water Water Water Water

Note that the volumes of solid and

water are not changing due to
Solids Solids Solids Solids

Monitor the effect of compaction on

three different phases

compaction
 Zero-air void case
 This is the minimum volume that can be achieved by removing all the air
 Dry density is the maximum at this condition

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

EFFECT OF MOISTURE CONTENT ON THE
MAXIMUM DRY DENSITY (100% SATURATION CASE)
Increase the moisture content while keeping the total volume fixed

Increase the amount of moisture and

decrease the amount of solid while
keeping the total volume constant
Water
Water
Water
Water

Solids Solids

Solids
Solids

 Moisture content = mass of water/mass of solid

 Dry density = mass of solid/total volume
 As the moisture content increases
 the amount of solid decreases and the amount of moisture increases
 maximum dry density therefore decreases with increasing moisture content
EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY
 ZERO AIR VOID RATIO LINE

All the air voids removed  100% saturation

Increasing compaction at a
fixed moisture content

Zero air-void curve: line of

maximum possible compaction
Dry Density

Initial dry density

Consider other cases with

higher moisture contents

Water content (%)

Consider a fixed water content

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 SOIL COMPACTION TEST
 Theory developed by R.R. Proctor in 1930’s in California
 Three factors determine the density that results from soil
compaction
 Compactive energy
 Moisture content
 Properties of soil: gradation of soil, plasticity characteristics

 Proctor compaction test

Measures the relationship between moisture content and the
degree of compaction under the action of a pre-defined level of
compactive energy

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 EFFECT OF MOISTURE CONTENT

Case-1: amount of moisture is too low

Most of the
void space is
filled with air

State -1 State - 2

 Not enough moisture - lack of lubrication

 Particle friction will prevent the relative movement of particles
 Will be difficult to move from State-1 to State-2

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 EFFECT OF MOISTURE CONTENT
Case-2: amount of moisture is too high

Most of the
void space is
filled with
water

State -1 State - 2
 Compaction is removal of air
 Too much water  load will be taken by the water
 Water is almost incompressible
 Going from State-1 to State-2 will again be difficult
EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY
 DRY DENSITY VS. MOISTURE CONTNET
 Too little water: compaction is difficult due to lack of
lubrication

 Too much water: again compaction is difficult due to load

taken by water which is almost incompressible

 There is a water content in between at which the density is

the maximum

 Objective of this experiment is to find that particular moisture

content (Optimum Moisture Content) and the Maximum
Dry Density

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 MOISTURE CONTENT VS. DRY DENSITY

Objective of this experiment

is to find this point

Maximum dry density

Dry Density

Optimum moisture content

Water content (%)

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

STANDARD PROCTOR COMPACTION TEST

2.7 kg hammer
 Mould dimensions:
Diameter= 105 mm, height = 115.5mm
 Mass of hammer: 2.7 kg
 Drop height: 300 mm
 Mould filled in 3 lifts
 25 blows of hammer per lift
 Energy input,  596 kJ/m3 300 mm drop height

3 LIFTS
3
Compacted height of the soil in the mould:
 38 mm to 43 mm in the first layer 2
 77 mm to 82 mm in the second layer
 116 mm to 120 mm in the third layer
1

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 STANDARD PROCTOR COMPACTION TEST

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

ANALYSIS OF TEST DATA

Determination of wet density Wet density of the compacted soil =

Mass of the mould = M1
Mass of the mould + compacted soil = M2
Mass of the compacted soil = M2-M1
Volume of the mould = V

Determination of moisture contnet Wet density of the compacted soil =

Mass of the container = C1
Mass of the container + wet soil = C2
Mass of the container + dry soil = C3
Dry density of the compacted soil =
Determination of dry density

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL COMPACTION

 Amount of energy
 Soil grading
 Type of soil

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 EFFECT OF ENERGY ON COMPACTION

Higher Energy
Dry Density

IN THE FIELD
Compaction energy can be
increased by
 increasing the number of
passes
 reducing the lift depth

Water content (%)

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 EFFECT OF SOIL GRADING ON COMPACTION

Poorly graded material

Not enough sizes to fill up the void spaces created by uniform particles

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 EFFECT OF SOIL TYPE ON COMPACTION

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 ROLE OF COMPACTION TEST IN PROJECTS

 Proctor compaction test provides the reference maximum

density

 Quality control processes are used to ensure that the earth fill is
compacted to the degree of compaction specified within a
range of specified water contents

 Field compaction tests are performed to assure that the proper

reference density is being used

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

FIELD MEASUREMENT: SAND CONE METHOD

SAND CONE METHOD

 A small hole is dug in the compacted
material to be tested. The soil is
removed and weighed and moisture
content determined.
 The volume of the hole is
determined by filling it with
calibrated dry sand from a jar and
cone device.
 The dry weight of the soil removed
is divided by the volume of sand
needed to fill the hole.
 This gives us the density of the
compacted soil in lbs per cubic foot.
 This density is compared to the
maximum Proctor density obtained
in the lab

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

FIELD MEASUREMENT: RUBBER BALLOON METHOD

 The same as the sand cone,

except a rubber balloon is used
to determine the volume of the
hole

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

FIELD MEASUREMENT USING NUCLEAR DENSITY METER

 Nuclear Density meter consists of a radiation source that emits a directed

beam of particles and a sensor that counts the received particles

 By calculating the percentage of particles that return to the sensor, the gauge
can be calibrated to measure the density and inner structure of the test
material

 Water content can also be read, all within a few minutes.

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 CALIFORNIA BEARING
RATIO

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST

 The California Bearing Ratio test was devised by the engineers of the
California Division of Highways in the 1930s

 The result of CBR test is used mainly to characterize the strength of

the various components of pavement system

 Based on the CBR values, the components of pavement system can be

designed by using empirical design charts

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 PAVEMENT SYSTEM

1 - Wearing course
2 - Base
3 - Sub-base
4 - Sub-grade

Definitions of terms relating to pavement systems

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
o The aim of pavement design is to select the most economical pavement
thickness and composition which will provide a satisfactory level of service for
the anticipated traffic.
EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY
 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE DESIGN OF
PAVEMENT

 Pavement performance (cracking, ride comfort etc.)

 Traffic (type of vehicle, number of vehicles etc.)
 Roadbed soils (subgrade material strength, stiffness etc.)
 Materials of construction (strength, stiffness etc.)
 Environment (temperature, rainfall etc.)
 Drainage (water affects the strength of materials)

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP FOR CBR TEST

 CBR is used to measure the strength of pavement materials

Dial gaugeProving ring

Plunger
Specimen

Mould

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO DEFINED

 CBR is simply the ratio between the resistance to penetration

of a standard plunger into the material and resistance of the
same standard plunger into a reference material (crushed
rock)

 For finding the CBR value of a material, the resistances of a

standard plunger to the penetrations of 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm
in the material are compared to the resistances of the same
standard plunger to the same amount of penetrations into a
standard reference material (crushed rock)

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 DETERMINATION OF CALIFORNIA BEARING
RATIO

Force-penetration data for reference material

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

DETERMINATION OF CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 USE OF CBR IN PAVEMENT DESIGN

 CBR result can be used to find the thickness of pavement

components using empirical design charts

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 EXPERIMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

 Prepare the sample at the condition expected at the

condition when constructed

 Maintain the moisture content and dry density expected

 Simulate the effect of loading by including surcharge
 Simulate the effect of moisture (soaked and un-soaked)

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 CBR TEST VARIABLES
 Type of samples
• Remoulded sample

• Undisturbed sample

• In-situ test

 Preparation of sample
• Static compaction/dynamic compaction

• Standard compactive effort/modified compactive effort

 Moisture condition of the samples

• Un-soaked sample

• Soaked sample

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 PREPARATION OF SAMPLE

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 ANALYSIS: DETERMINATION OF CBR VALUE

 Plot the load-penetration curve

 When the load-penetration curve is concave upward
initially (because of surface irregularities or other causes)
adjust the zero point

 Read from the load-penetration curve, corrected if required,

the force value in kN at penetrations of 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm

 Calculate the bearing ratio at 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm by

dividing by 13.2 kN and 19.8 kN respectively and
multiplying by 100

 The higher of the above two is the CBR value of the material

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

PLOTTING OF THE LOAD-PENETRATION DATA

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 PLOTTING OF THE LOAD-PENETRATION DATA

CBR of the material is the higher of the above two values

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 SUMMARY

 Theory of soil compaction

 Measure of compactness of soil
 Standard Proctor Compaction test
 Determination of maximum density density and OMC
 CBR and use of CBR
 CBR test procedure
 Determination of CBR

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 QUESTIONS?

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY

 THANK YOU

EASC1081: SOIL MECHANICS DR BISHWAJIT CHOWDHURY