Hibbeler, Mechanics of Materials-Combined Loading

8.
Combined Loadings
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
• Analyze the stress
developed in thin-walled
pressure vessels
• Review the stress
analysis developed in
previous chapters
regarding axial load,
torsion, bending and
shear
• Discuss the solution of problems where several of
these internal loads occur simultaneously on a
member’s x-section
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8. Combined Loadings
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
2. State of Stress Caused by Combined Loadings

8.1 THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS
• Cylindrical or spherical vessels are commonly
used in industry to serve as boilers or tanks
• When under pressure, the material which they are
made of, is subjected to a loading from all
directions
• However, we can simplify the analysis provided it
has a thin wall
• “Thin wall” refers to a vessel having an inner-
radius-thickness ratio of 10 or more (r/t ≥ 10)
• When r/t = 10, results of a thin-wall analysis will
predict a stress approximately 4% less than actual
maximum stress in the vessel

• Assumption taken before analysis is that the
thickness of the pressure vessel is uniform or
constant throughout
• The pressure in the vessel is understood to be the
gauge pressure, since it measures the pressure
above atmospheric pressure, which is assumed to
exist both inside and outside the vessel’s wall

Cylindrical vessels
• A gauge pressure p is
developed within the vessel
by a contained gas or fluid,
and assumed to have
negligible weight
• Due to uniformity of loading,
an element of the vessel is
subjected to normal stresses
1 in the circumferential or
hoop direction and 2 in the
longitudinal or axial direction

Cylindrical vessels
• We use the method of sections and apply the
equations of force equilibrium to get the
magnitudes of the stress components
• For equilibrium in the x direction, we require
pr
1 =
t Equation 8-1

Cylindrical vessels
• As shown, 2 acts uniformly throughout the wall,
and p acts on the section of gas or fluid. Thus for
equilibrium in the y direction, we require
pr
2 =
2t Equation 8-2

Cylindrical vessels
• For Eqns 8-1 and 8-2,
1, 2 = normal stress in the hoop and longitudinal
directions, respectively. Each is assumed to
be constant throughout the wall of the cylinder,
and each subjects the material to tension
p = internal gauge pressure developed by the
contained gas or fluid
r = inner radius of the cylinder
t = thickness of the wall (r/t ≥ 10)

Cylindrical vessels
• Comparing Eqns 8-1 and 8-2, note that the hoop
or circumferential stress is twice as large as the
longitudinal or axial stress
• When engineers fabricate cylindrical pressure
vessels from rolled-form plates, the longitudinal
joints must be designed to carry twice as much
stress as the circumferential joints

Spherical vessels
• The analysis for a spherical pressure vessel can
be done in a similar manner
• Like the cylinder, equilibrium in the y direction
requires
pr
2 =
2t Equation 8-3

Spherical vessels
• Note that Eqn 8-3 is similar to Eqn 8-2. Thus, this
stress is the same regardless of the orientation of
the hemispheric free-body diagram
• An element of material taken from either a
cylindrical or spherical pressure vessel is
subjected to biaxial stress; normal stress existing
in two directions

Spherical vessels
• The material is also subjected to radial stress, 3.
It has a value equal to pressure p at the interior
wall and decreases to zero at exterior surface of
the vessel
• However, we ignore the radial
stress component for thin-walled
vessels, since the limiting
assumption of r/t = 10, results in
3 and 2 being 5 and 10 times
higher than maximum radial
stress (3)max = p
EXAMPLE 8.1
Cylindrical pressure vessel has an inner diameter
of 1.2 m and thickness of 12 mm. Determine the
maximum internal pressure it can sustain so that
neither its circumferential nor its longitudinal stress
component exceeds 140 MPa. Under the same
conditions, what is the maximum internal pressure
that a similar-size spherical vessel

EXAMPLE 8.1 (SOLN)
Cylindrical pressure vessel
Maximum stress occurs in the
circumferential direction. From
Eqn 8-1, we have
pr
1 = ; 140 N/mm2 = p(600 mm)
t 12 mm
p = 2.8 N/mm2
Note that when pressure is reached, from Eqn 8-2,
stress in the longitudinal direction will be
2 = 0.5(140 MPa) = 70 MPa.
EXAMPLE 8.1 (SOLN)
Cylindrical pressure vessel
Furthermore, maximum stress in the radial direction
occurs on the material at the inner wall of the vessel
and is (3)max = p = 2.8 MPa. This value is 50 times
smaller than the circumferential stress (140 MPa),
and as stated earlier, its effects will be neglected.

EXAMPLE 8.1 (SOLN)
Spherical pressure vessel
Here, the maximum stress occurs in any two
perpendicular directions on an element of the vessel.
From Eqn 8-3, we have
pr
2 = ; 140 N/mm2 = p(600 mm)
2t 2(12 mm)
p = 5.6 N/mm2
Although it is more difficult to fabricate, the

spherical pressure vessel will carry twice as much
internal pressure as a cylindrical vessel.
8.2 STATE OF STRESS CAUSED BY COMBINED LOADINGS
• In previous chapters, we developed methods for

determining the stress distributions in a member
subjected to internal axial forces, shear forces,
bending moments, or torsional moments.
• Often, the x-section of a member is subjected to
several of these type of loadings simultaneously
• We can use the method of superposition to
determine the resultant stress distribution caused
by the loads

Application of the method of superposition

1. The stress distribution due to each loading is
determined
2. These distributions are superimposed to determine
the resultant stress distribution
Conditions to satisfy
• A linear relationship exists between the stress and
the loads
• Geometry of the member should not undergo
significant change when the loads are applied

• This is necessary to
ensure that the stress
produced by one load is
not related to the stress
produced by any other
load

Procedure for analysis

Internal loading
• Section the member perpendicular to its axis at
the pt where the stress is to be determined
• Obtain the resultant internal normal and shear
force components and the bending and torsional
moment components
• Force components should act through the centroid
of the x-section, and moment components should
be computed about centroidal axes, which
represent the principal axes of inertia for x-section


Average normal stress
• Compute the stress component associated with
each internal loading.
• For each case, represent the effect either as a
distribution of stress acting over the entire x-
sectional area, or show the stress on an element
of the material located at a specified pt on the x-
section


Normal force
• Internal normal force is developed by a uniform
normal-stress distribution by  = P/A
Shear force
• Internal shear force in member subjected to
bending is developed from shear-stress
distribution determined from the shear formula,
 = VQ/It. Special care must be exercised as
highlighted in section 7.3.


Bending moment
• For straight members, the internal bending
moment is developed by a normal-stress
distribution that varies linearly from zero at the
neutral axis to a maximum at outer boundary of
the member.
• Stress distribution obtained from flexure formula,
 = –My/I.
• For curved member, stress distribution is
nonlinear and determined from  = My/[Ae(R – y)]


Torsional moment
• For circular shafts and tubes, internal torsional
moment is developed by a shear-stress
distribution that varies linearly from the central
axis of shaft to a maximum at shaft’s outer
boundary
• Shear-stress distribution is determined from the
torsional formula, = T/J.
• If member is a closed thin-walled tube,
use  = T/2Amt


Thin-walled pressure vessels
• If vessel is a thin-walled cylinder, internal
pressure p will cause a biaxial state of stress in
the material such that the hoop or circumferential
stress component is 1 = pr/t and longitudinal
2 = pr/2t.
• If vessel is a thin-walled sphere, then biaxial
state of stress is represented by two equivalent
components, each having a magnitude of
2 = pr/2t


Superposition
• Once normal and shear stress components for
each loading have been calculated, use the
principle of superposition and determine the
resultant normal and shear stress components
• Represent the results on an element of material
located at the pt, or show the results as a
distribution of stress acting over the member’s
x-sectional area

EXAMPLE 8.2
A force of 15,000 N is applied to the edge of the
member shown. Neglect the weight of the member
and determine the state of stress at pts B and C.

EXAMPLE 8.2 (SOLN)
Internal loadings
Member is sectioned through B and C. For
equilibrium at section, there must be an axial force
of 15,000 N acting through the centroid and a
bending moment of 750,000 N·mm about the
centroidal or principal axis.

EXAMPLE 8.2 (SOLN)
Stress components
1. Normal force
Uniform normal-stress distribution
due to normal force is shown.
 = P/A = … = 3.75 MPa
2. Bending moment
Normal stress distribution due to
bending moment is shown.
max = Mc/I = … = 11.25 MPa

EXAMPLE 8.2 (SOLN)
Superposition
If above normal-stress distributions
are added algabraically, resultant
stress distribution is shown.
Although not needed here, the
location of the line of zero stress
can be determined by proportional
triangles, i.e.,
7.5 MPa 15 MPa
=
x (100 mm – x)
x = 33.3 mm

EXAMPLE 8.2 (SOLN)
Superposition
Elements of material at B and C are subjected only
to normal or uniaxial stress as shown. Hence
B = 7.5 MPa C = 15 MPa

EXAMPLE 8.3
Tank shown has inner radius of 600 mm and a
thickness of 12 mm. It is filled to the top with water
having a specific weight of st = 78 kN/m3.
Determine the state of stress at pt A. Tank is open
at the top.

EXAMPLE 8.3 (SOLN)
Internal loadings
Free-body diagram of section of both the tank and
water above pt A is shown. Notice that the weight
of the water is supported by the water surface just
below the section, not by the walls of the tank. In
this vertical direction, the walls simply hold up the
weight of the tank.
Wst = st Vst = … = 3.56 kN

EXAMPLE 8.3 (SOLN)
Internal loadings
The stress in the circumferential direction is
developed by the water pressure at level A. To
obtain this pressure, we use Pascal’s law, which
states that the pressure at a pt located at depth z
in the water is p =  w z. Consequently, pressure on
tank at level A is
p = w z = (10 kN/m3)(1 m) = 10 kN/m2

EXAMPLE 8.3 (SOLN)
Stress components
1. Circumferential stress
Applying Eqn 8-1, using inner radius of r = 600 mm,
we have
1 = pr/t = … = 500 kPa
2. Longitudinal stress
Since weight of tank is supported
uniformly by the walls, we have
2 = Wst/Ast = … = 77.9 kPa

EXAMPLE 8.3 (SOLN)
Stress components
Note that Eqn 8-2, 2 = pr/2t does not apply here,
since tank is open at the top and therefore, as
stated previously, the water cannot develop a
loading on the walls in the longitudinal direction.
Pt A is therefore subjected to the biaxial stress as
shown.

EXAMPLE 8.5
The solid rod shown has a radius of 0.75 cm. If it is
subjected to the loading shown, determine the
stress at pt A.

EXAMPLE 8.5 (SOLN)
Internal loadings
Rod is sectioned through pt A. Using free-body
diagram of segment AB, the resultant internal
loadings can be determined from the six equations
of equilibrium.

EXAMPLE 8.5 (SOLN)
Internal loadings
The normal force (500 N) and
shear force (800 N) must act
through the centroid of the x-
section and the bending-moment
components (8000 N·cm) and
7000 N·cm) are applied about
centroidal (principal) axes. In
order to better “visualize” the
stress distributions due to each of
these loadings, we will consider
the equal but opposite resultants
acting on AC.
EXAMPLE 8.5 (SOLN)
Stress components
1. Normal force
Normal stress distribution is shown.
For pt A, we have
A = P/A = … = 2.83 MPa

EXAMPLE 8.5 (SOLN)
Stress components
2. Shear force
Shear-stress distribution is shown.
For pt A, Q is determined from the
shaded semicircular area. Using
tables provided in textbook, we have
Q = y’A’ = … = 0.2813 cm3
A = VQ/It = … = 6.04 MPa

EXAMPLE 8.5 (SOLN)
Stress components
3. Bending moments
For the 8000 N·cm component, pt A lies
on the neutral axis, so the normal stress
is
A = 0
For the 7000 N·cm component,

c = 0.75 cm, so normal stress at pt A, is
A = Mc/I = … = 211.26 MPa

EXAMPLE 8.5 (SOLN)
Stress components
4. Torsional moment
At pt A, A = c = 0.75 cm, thus
A = Tc/J = … = 169.01 MPa

EXAMPLE 8.5 (SOLN)
Superposition
When the above results are
superimposed, it is seen that
an element of material at pt A
is subjected to both normal
and shear stress components

CHAPTER REVIEW
• A pressure vessel is considered to have a thin
wall provided r/t ≥ 10. For a thin-walled
cylindrical vessel, the circumferential or hoop
stress is 1 = pr/t. This stress is twice as great
as the longitudinal stress, 2 = pr/2t. Thin-
walled spherical vessels have the same stress
within their walls in all directions so that
1 = 2 = pr/2t
• Superposition of stress components can be
used to determine the normal and shear stress
at a pt in a member subjected to a combined
loading.
CHAPTER REVIEW
• To solve, it is first necessary to determine the
resultant axial and shear force and the resultant
torsional and bending moment at the section
where the pt is located.
• Then the stress components are determined due
to each of these loadings. The normal and shear-
stress resultants are then determined by
algebraically adding the normal and shear-stress
components.

Hibbeler, Mechanics of Materials-Combined Loading

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8.

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Although it is more difficult to fabricate, the

• In previous chapters, we developed methods for

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Application of the method of superposition

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Procedure for analysis

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Procedure for analysis

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Procedure for analysis

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Procedure for analysis

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Procedure for analysis

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Procedure for analysis

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Procedure for analysis

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max = Mc/I = … = 11.25 MPa

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B = 7.5 MPa C = 15 MPa

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Wst = st Vst = … = 3.56 kN

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p = w z = (10 kN/m3)(1 m) = 10 kN/m2

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Q = y’A’ = … = 0.2813 cm3

A = VQ/It = … = 6.04 MPa

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For the 7000 N·cm component,

A = Mc/I = … = 211.26 MPa

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A = Tc/J = … = 169.01 MPa

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