Chapter 5

Wireless
Communication systems
&
Propagation
Chapter Outlines
Chapter 5 Wireless Communication
Systems &
propagation

• The Friis Transmission Equation

• Antenna Noise Temperature
• Radar
• Propagation Path Loss
• Free Space Propagation
• Plane Earth Propagation
• Attenuation
Introduction
Wireless communications involves the transfer of
information between two points without direct
connection  sound, infrared, optical or RF energy.

Most modern wireless systems rely on RF or microwave

signals, usually in the UHF to millimeter wave freq
range.

But why high freq?  spectrum crowding, need for

higher data rates  majority of today’s wireless systems
operate at freq ranging from 800MHz to few GHz. E.g.
broadcast radio and TV, cellular telephones, DBS TV
service, WLAN, GPS and RFID.
Introduction (Cont’d..)

Characterizing the wireless systems:

 Point to point radio systems  single transmitter

with single receiver  use high gain antennas in fixed
positions to max received power and minimize
interference with other radios (nearby frequencies).

 Point to multipoint systems  connect a central

station to a large number of possible receivers 
commercial AM and FM radio and broadcast tv  Uses
an antenna with broad beam to reach many listeners
and viewers.
Introduction (Cont’d..)
 Multipoint to multipoint systems  simultaneous
communication between individual users (maybe not in
fixed location)  generally not connect two users
directly, but rely on a grid of base stations to provide
desired interconnections between users. E.g. cellular
telephone systems and WLAN.

Can also be characterize in terms of directionality of

communication:

 Simplex system  communication occurs in one

direction, from tx to rx. E.g. broadcast TV, radio and
paging systems.
Introduction (Cont’d..)
 Half Duplex system  communication in two
directions, but not simultaneously. E.g. early mobile
radios (walkie-talkie) ..which rely on push to talk
function with different intervals of transmitting and
receiving.

 Full Duplex systems  simultaneous two-way

transmission and reception. E.g. cellular telephone and
point to point radio systems  require ‘duplexing’
techniques : 1. using separate freq bands for transmit
and receive, 2. users to transmit and receive in certain
predefined time intervals.
5.1 The Friis Transmission
Equation

The Friis transmission equation describes how well the energy

is exchanged between transmitter and receiver. Consider a pair
of horn antennas with the same polarization and aligned each
other.
The Friis Transmission Equation
(Cont’d..)
The radiated power density from Horn 1 at the location of Horn
2 is : P
P1 R,  ,   
rad1
Dmax1
4R 2

The power received by Horn 2 is product of this power density

and capture area A2, written as :
Dmax1 A2
Prec2  P1 R,  ,  A2  Prad1
4R 2
The power received at Horn 1 resulting from power emitted by
Horn 2 : Dmax A1
Prec1  Prad2 2

4R 2
The Friis Transmission Equation
(Cont’d..)
The reciprocity property – the transmission pattern is the same
as receive pattern, and the ratio of received power to radiated
power will be the same, regardless which pair is transmitting
or receiving.
Prec2 Prec1

Prad1 Prad2
Dmax1 Dmax2
Therefore, D
max1 A2  Dmax2 A1
or 
A1 A2
Since the directivity and area are independent each other, the
ratio must be equal to constant :-
Dmax 4

A 2
The Friis Transmission Equation
(Cont’d..)
Generally,

We find,
r – receiver
Dt  ,  Ar  ,  
Prad
Prec  t – transmitter
4R 2
The ratio is also valid even D ,   4

the antennas are not in line : Ae  ,   2
The Friis Transmission Equation
(Cont’d..)
Replace the effective area with receiving area to get :
2
  
 Dt  ,  Dr  ,  
Prec

Prad  4R 

Finally consider, Prad  et Pin , Pout  er Prec , Gt  et Dt , Gr  er Dr

To get:
2
  
 Gt  ,  Gr  ,  
Pout

Pin  4R 
The Friis Transmission Equation
(Cont’d..)
This result is known as Friis transmission equation, which
addresses on how much power is received by an antenna.

Practically, it can be interpreted as the max possible received

power, whereby with lot of factors to reduce the received power
in actual radio system:

• impedance mismatch at either antenna

• polarization mismatch between the antennas

• propagation effects  leads to attenuation or depolarization

• mutlipath effects  partial cancellation of the received field.

The Friis Transmission Equation
(Cont’d..)
Important Notes!!
The received power decreases as 1/R2 as the separation
between transmitter and receiver increases.

It seems large for large distance, but it is much better than the
exponential decrease in power due to losses in a wired
communication link (coax lines, waveguides, even fiber optic
lines)  the attenuation power on Tline varies as e-2αz , with α
is attenuation constant of the line  at large distance, the exp
function decreases faster than an algebraic dependence like
1/R2 .

For long distance communication, radio links perform

better than wired links.
Example 1
Consider a pair of half wavelength dipole antennas,
separated by 1 km and aligned for maximum power
transfer as shown. The transmission antenna is driven
with 1 kW of power at 1 GHz. Assuming antennas are
100% efficient, determine the receiving antenna’s output
power.

14
Solution to Example 1
For 100% efficiency and antennas optimally aligned,

2
Pout   
 Dmaxt Dmaxr  
Pin  4R 

For the λ/2 dipole antennas we have Dmaxt = Dmaxr = 1.64 and at
1 GHz, λ = 0.3m,

2
2  
 1.64 
Pout 0.3   1.5 10 9
Pin  
 4 110 3  

Solution to Example 1 (cont’d..)

In terms of decibels,

Pout
Pin
 
dB  10 log 1.5 10 9  88 dB
So finally,

 
Pout  1.5 10 9 1 kW   1.5W
The Friis Transmission Equation
(Cont’d..)
The Friss transmission equation can also be known as (in
terms of receive and transmit) :
2
  
 Gt  ,  Gr  ,  
Pr

Pt  4R 

Whereby, the product of PtGt can e interpreted

equivalently as the power radiated by an isotropic
antenna with input power PtGt, or effective isotropic
radiated power (EIRP):

EIRP  Pt Gt watt
The Friis Transmission Equation
(Cont’d..)
For a given frequency, range and receiver antenna gain,
the received power is proportional to EIRP of transmitter,
and can only be increased by increasing the EIRP 
increase transmit power, or transmit antenna gain or
both.
In any RF or microwave system, impedance mismatch
will reduce the power delivered from a source to a load,
where the Friss formula can be multiplied by the
impedance mismatch factor,


imp  1  t
2
1   
r
2
The Friis Transmission Equation
(Cont’d..)
Max transmission between two antennas requires both
antenna be polarized in the same direction. E.g. if a
transmit antenna is vertically polarized, max power will
be delivered to a vertically polarized receive antenna,
while zero power would be delivered to a horizontally
polarized received antenna.

The polarization mismatch effects is measured by

multiplying the Friss formula by the polarization loss
factor,
2
e pol  eˆi  eˆr
5.2 Antenna Noise Temperature

NOISE

Noise is any unwanted received signal independent of the

transmitted signal and man action

EXTERNAL NOISE

Cosmic noise, Atmospheric noise

INTERNAL NOISE

Cable noise (waveguide or copper), receiver noise (thermal

noise)
Antenna Noise Temperature (Cont’d..)

Natural and manmade sources of background noise.

Antenna Noise Temperature (Cont’d..)

Antenna noise temperature is the sum of all noise source

at the antenna
Noise power given by:

N 0  kTB
Where
k = Boltzman’s constant = 1.39 1023 J/K = 228.6 dBW/k/Hz
T = physical temperature of source in kelvin degree
B = noise bandwidth in which the noise power is measured
in Hz
Antenna Noise Temperature (Cont’d..)
Normally, we have the simple case to measure an
available output noise power N0, given by:

N 0  kTB

Illustrating the concept of background temperature. (a) A resistor at

temperature T. (b) An antenna in an anechoic chamber at temperature T. (c)
An antenna viewing a uniform sky background at temperature T.
Chamber room…
Antenna Noise Temperature (Cont’d..)

But when the antenna beamwidth is broad enough that

different parts of the antenna pattern see different
background temperatures, the temperature now is
called as effective noise temperature, Te seen by the
antenna. This antenna brightness temperature takes
into account the distribution of background
temperature, directivity and the power pattern
function of the antenna
Antenna Noise Temperature (Cont’d..)

System noise temperature,

Ts = Tin + Te
Where Ts = system temperature

Tin = noise temperature of antenna and cable

Te = Thermal noise (at Rx)

Antenna Noise Temperature (Cont’d..)

Ta  Tsky  TG

Ta  1 
TIN   T0 
1 

LW / G  LW / G 

So, the system noise temperature

Ts  TIN  Te

Noise power given by:

N 0  kTs B
Antenna Noise Temperature (Cont’d..)
If given noise in term of noise figure, to find noise
temperature

F  1
Te and Te  ( F  1)T0
T0

Where F = noise figure (nf)

T0 = ambient temperature
Antenna Noise Temperature (Cont’d..)

The G/T ratio is another important parameter where the

signal to noise ratio (SNR) at the input of a receiver is
proportional to G/Ts.

G / T dB   10 log dB K
G
Ts
The SNR at the input to the receiver can be calculated as:

   Gt Pt     Gr 
2 2
Si Gr Gt Pt
  4R   kB  4R   
Ni kTs B  Ts 
Antenna Noise Temperature (Cont’d..)
Where SNR is proportional to G/T of the receive
antenna. Only Gr/Ts is controllable at the receiver, and
others are fixed by the transmitter design and location.

G/T can be maximized by increase the gain of antenna

 usually minimize reception of noise from hot sources
at low elevation angles  but higher gain requires
larger and more expensive antenna, and high gain may
not be desirable for application of omnidirectional
coverage!!
Antenna Noise Temperature (Cont’d..)

• Signal to Noise Ratio

SNR(dB)  PT  GT  L  GR  (kTB  nf )

or SNR(dB)  PR  N 0
Example 2
Suppose we have satellite system operates at 12.5GHz, with
transmit carrier power 120W, transmit antenna gain 34dB,
IF Bandwidth 20 MHz. The receiving dish have gain of
33.5dB, with receiver noise figure 1.1dB, locates 39000km
from the satellite. The temperature noise between Tx-Rx
are, Tsky = 50K and TG = 50K and Lw/g = 1dB. Find:

(a) EIRP of the transmitter

(b) G/T for the receive antenna

(c) Received carrier power at receiver terminal

(d) Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)

Solution to Example 2
Convert the quantities in dB to numerical values:

34 dB = 2512, 1.1 dB = 1.29, 33.5 dB = 2239

The operating frequency 12.5 GHz, so wavelength
0.024m.
So,
EIRP  Pt Gt  1202512  3.01105W  84.8 dBm

In dB, convert Pt in dB, PT = 50.8dBm

EIRP  PT  GT  50.8dBm  34dB  84.8 dBm

Solution to Example 2 (Cont’d..)
To find G/T, first find noise temperature of the antenna

Ta  Tsky  TG
Ta  50K  50 K  100K
For Lw/g =1.29;
Ta  1 
TIN   T0 1    100 K
LW / G  LW / G 
Ts  TIN  Te  Ta  T0 F  1
Ts  100 K  290 K (1.29  1)  184.1K
So then G/T for the antenna is:

G / T dB   10 log
2239
 10.85 dB K
184.1
Solution to Example 2 (Cont’d..)
The received carrier power is from Friis formula:

Pr  
 
Pt Gt Gr 2 3.01105 22390.024
2

4R  2

4  3.9 10
2 7 2

 1.62 1012W  87.9 dBm
Or in dB
  
2

PR  EIRP  GR  10 log  
 4R 
2
 0.024 
 84.8dBm  33.5dB  10 log  7 
 dB
 4 (3.9 10 ) 
 87.9 dBm
Solution to Example 2 (Cont’d..)
The SNR at the receiver is:

    Gr
 1
2
Pr
SNR  EIRP  
 
 4R   TA
 KB N o
 1.62 10 12W 
   23

 1.39 10 184.1K  20MHz 
 31.65  15dB

Or in dB
SNR( dB )  PR  N 0
 KTs B 
 87.9dBm  10 log  
 1mW 
 15dB
5.3 Radar
The operation of monostatic radar (radio detection and
ranging) system,

(a) A radar antenna

transmits a signal to
the target.
(b) The target scatters
this signal, some of
which is received by the
radar antenna.
Radar (Cont’d..)
 The direction of antenna’s main beam determines the
location of the target (azimuth and elevation).

 The distance or range to the target corresponds to the time

between transmitting and receiving EM pulse.

 The speed of target, relative to antenna, can be determined

by observing any frequency shift in EM energy (doppler effect).

The radar equation,

Prec1  s 2
 D ,  2 σs is the radar cross section
Prad1 4 
3
R 4
Radar (Cont’d..)

A more popular expression in terms of an effective area of the

radar antenna is :

Prec1 s
 Ae 2
Prad1 4R 4 2

The strongest receive power occur when the antenna’s main

beam is pointing at the target, D(θ,φ) = Dmax. The received
power also be detectable over the noise in the system, so radar
will have a minimum detectable power.
Example 3

A radar with minimum detectable power specified as

1 pW is 1 km distant from a target with a 1 m2 radar
cross section. Operated at 1 GHz the antenna has
directivity of 100. Determine how much power must
be radiated to enable detection of the target.

40
Solution to Example 3

Solve the radar equation in terms of Prad1 :

Prad1  Prec1
4 3 R 4 1
 s 2 D 2 max

At 10 GHz, we have λ = 0.3m, then we get:

 10 W 
12 4  3
1000 m 4
1
 2.2W
Prad1
1m2 0.3m2 100 2
Introduction to Propagation
The propagating wave between transmit and receive
antennas in radio communication channel subjects to
variety of effects (amplitude, phase or frequency) :-

• Reflection (from the ground or large objects)

• Diffraction (from edges and corners of terrain or buildings)

• Scattering (from foliage or other small objects)

• Attenuation (from rain or the atmosphere)

• Doppler (from moving users)

This list covers the important effects for frequencies

above 500 MHz.
Introduction to Propagation
Introduction to Propagation (Cont’d)

For frequencies below, about 100 MHz, other

propagation effects can be important:

• ground surface waves

• atmosphere ducting

• ionosphere reflection

Generally, propagation effects have the effect of

reducing the received signal power, thus limit the usable
range or maximum data rate of a wireless system.
5.4 Propagation path loss
• Propagation path loss due to movement of the mobile
away from RBS (Radio Base Station)

• Propagation over land or sea follows 1 / d  law

(propagation power law where has a theoretical value
4 (for flat earth))
Free Space
1
Pr
Power d2
Received
Plane Earth

1
Pr
d4

Distance
5.4.1 Free Space Propagation
From Friis equation, the received power decreases as
1/R2 with distance from the transmitter  path loss 
only applies to propagation in free space where no
reflection, scattering or diffraction along the path
between transmitter and receiver.

Practically, the Friis equation can be used if there’s

essentially a single line of sight (LOS) path between
transmitter and receiver  usually implies that at least
one of the link antennas has a narrow beamwidth (high
gain) e.g. point to point radio links, satellite to satellite
links and earth to satellite links.
Free Space Propagation (Cont’d..)

A point to point radio link with a single line of sight propagation path

A cellular telephone channel having multiple propagation paths.

Free Space Propagation (Cont’d..)
Multipath propagation is particularly likely when the
antennas have broad beams (low gain) and in close
proximity to the ground or other large reflecting
structures i.e. buildings, vehicles or foliage.

May be no LOS path at all!!  common situation for

cellular phone located in a building or vehicle.
Communication still possible in multipath or even in the
absence of LOS path  but the total signal voltage received
will have varying degrees of destructive or constructive
interference due to the variable phase delays that occur at
different paths  Friis can not be used!
Free Space Propagation (Cont’d..)
For multipath propagation there are several model of
propagation such as:

a. Ground Reflections
b. Vegetation Propagation
c. Urban Propagation
d. Okumura Model
e. Ionosphere Propagation
f. Troposphere Propagation
5.4.2 Plane earth propagation

dd
Plane earth propagation (cont…)
• Triangle ABC
dd 2  (ht  hr ) 2  d 2
dd  [( ht  hr ) 2  d 2 ]1/ 2
 2  ht  hr 
1/ 2
2

dd  d 1  2


  d 
 1  ht  hr 2 
• Binomial series, dd = d 1   
 2  d  
 1  ht  hr 2 
• Same step for triangle BCD dr  d 1   
 2  d  
Plane earth propagation (cont…)
• The path difference between the reflected wave Er and
direct wave Ed is dr  dd  2hthr
d
• Phase difference = path different x wave number

  (dr  dd ) * 
2hthr 2 4hthr
  
d  d
Plane earth propagation (cont…)
4hthr
• Received power, Pr  4 Pd sin 2

2d
• Pd = power received in free space

• So, power received for plane earth reflection:

   2  2hthr 
2

Pr  4 PtGtGr  sin  
 4d   d 
sin    Since ht, hr <<d,  is small

2
 hthr 
Pr  PtGtGr 2 
 d 
Example 4

Consider GSM900 cellular radio system with 20W

transmitted power from Base Station Transceiver
(BTS). The gain of BTS and Mobile Station (MS)
antenna are 8dB and 2dB respectively. The BTS is
located 10km away from MS and the height of the
antenna for BTS and MS are 200m and 3m respectively.
By assuming plane earth loss between BTS and MS,
calculate the received signal level at MS
SOLUTION TO Example 4
Given
f = 900MHz d = 10km
Pt = 20W = 43dBm ht = 200m
GT=8dB = 6.31 hr = 3m
GR = 2dB = 1.58

So, the received signal at MS

2
 hthr 
Pr  PtGtGr 2   7.18nW
 d 
2
 hthr 
PR(dB)  PT  GT  GR  10 log  2   51.44dBm
 d 
5.5 Attenuation

Attenuation decrease in signal power due to losses in

the propagation path.
Material Frequency Loss, dB

Concrete Block 1300 MHz 13

Wall
Sheetrock 2 x 3/8” 9.6 GHz 2

Plywood 2 x 3/4” 9.6 GHz 4

Concrete Wall 1300 MHz 8-15

Chain Link Fence 1300 MHz 5-12

Loss Between 1300 MHz 20-30

Floors
Corner in Corridor 1300 MHz 10-15
Wireless Communication
Systems and Propagation

End