Analogue Communication and Propagation

LECTURE 12: Free Space

H6107, 2022Propagation
Effects of free space propagation conditions

Propagation at different frequencies, VLF to microwave

Prof.Ground
•
Maziar
wave
Nekovee, University of Sussex
• Tropospheric propagation

• Sky wave

• Scattering and diffraction

 LECTURE 5: Transmission and
Propagation in Free Space
Introduction to antennas

Definition of antenna gain

Explanation of EIRP

Definition of antenna efficiency

Explanation of the principle of reciprocity

Derivation of the Friis transmission equation

 Electromagnetic waves in free space
• free space signals (RF to millimeter wave) are launched and detected using
antennas
• these provide the link between guided waves and the free space parts of a
communication system.
 a) Antenna as transmitter

• Point source radiating uniformly in

all directions is isotropic
• Wavefronts are spherical

• Only very far from source

(compared to l) will the wavefronts
approximate to plane waves

oscillating charge

• if an isotropic source transmits a total power, Pt , this will spread out over the
surface of a sphere
• at a radius, R, from the source, the sphere has surface area 4pR2
• the power density over a wavefront
Pt
W  2 W/m2
4R
 Conclusion
• Isotropic source is wasteful
• Spreads radiation over a spherical wavefront so power density in required
direction is reduced
• Antenna concentrates waves in a specified direction
• Provides directionality

Source is a directional antenna

concentrated beam

• Beam can be any shape

• But wave fronts are still parts of spheres
• Again, they become plane waves far from the source (compared to l)
 Antenna Gain
• Indicates how much the antenna concentrates the transmitted power
compared to an isotropic source.
defined as :-
the power density in the direction of maximum intensity____________
the power density from an isotropic antenna with the same power input

N.B. the gain does not increase the total power radiated, just concentrates it
Away from the maximum direction, there will be less power transmitted than from
isotropic source. This leads to a radiation pattern for the antenna.
Gain at distance R from source transmitter

Wt actual power density at distance R from source

Gt 
W power density from isotropic source at distance R from source

Pt
But: W 
4R 2
Substituting:
Wt 4R 2
Gt 
Pt

Pt Gt
Hence Wt  W/m2
4R 2
 Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)

• Quantity PtGt corresponds to the equivalent power of a source which radiates

isotropically

• It is called the equivalent isotropic radiated power EIRP = PtGt

• EIRP acts as a ‘figure of merit’ for the antenna

• If we convert all parameters into dB then
EIRP (dB) = Pt (dB) + Gt (dB) - Fe (dB)

power generated by source antenna gain

feeder losses

Feeder losses allow for fact that antenna is not perfect

b) Antenna as receiver

If receiving antenna is ideal, and has an effective area Aeff , then all of the
incident radiation is converted into received power

Pr  Wt Aeff

• But real antennas are not ideal

• Reflections and mismatches lead to finite efficiency.

• Therefore the real area, A, of an antenna must be > Aeff , in order to achieve the

theoretical efficiency
• This is expressed as an aperture efficiency
Aeff
  100% usually 60 - 85%
A
 Principle of reciprocity and antenna gain

• Almost all antennas are reciprocal devices

• i.e. if antenna transmits 100x power in direction A as in direction B, then it will also
be 100x more sensitive to radiation from direction A than direction B
• Leads to a basic equation in antenna theory
• Relates the gain of the antenna as a transmitter to its effective area as a receiver
• Basic antenna gain equation, directly related to directionality:

4kA
G
2

A = actual physical area of antenna

k = a efficiency multiplier (<1, related to ) such that kA = Aeff
l = wavelength of radiation
Friis transmission equation
Consider a communications link with a transmitter (TXR) and receiver (RXR)
antenna
R

Pt and Gt Gr (gain of RXR in transmit

mode)
TXR RXR

Power received: Pr  Wt Aeff  Wt kA

4kA Gr 2
But, from basic antenna equation: Gr  2 giving: kA 
 4
Gr 2 Pt Gt
Gives: Pr  Wt and use Wt  from2antenna gain
4 4R
2
Hence:   
Pr  Pt Gt Gr   Watts
 4R 
 Path loss
2
• From Friis transmission equation, consider the term
  
 
 4R 

• Quantifies spreading signal of wavelength l over portion of a sphere radius R

  
• i.e. an effective loss of signal, path loss L p  20 log  dB
 4R 
 Can express all the terms in Friis equation in dB

Pr (dBW) = Pt (dBW) + Gt (dB) + Gr (dB) + Lp (dB)

NB Lp (dB) is a negative number (loss)

• Usually >> Gt (dB) + Gr (dB)

• Hence need for amplification at RXR
• dBW is dB relative to 1 Watt
• dBm is dB relative to 1 mW
Case study : Satellite links
 Satellite communications
• Antenna orbiting earth on a satellite plus one, or more, earth station antennas
• Most common orbit is the geostationary (or synchronous) orbit
• Period of orbit ~ 24 hours (23 h 56 m 4.1 s)
• Satellite above equator keeps pace with earth and remains above a fixed point

• Height fixed by gravitational force & period of orbit above equator h = 35.8 x 103 km

• Range to a given earth station R > h

satellite
Advantage of geostationary
• Don’t have to track with earth station antenna
R h Disadvantages
• Range can be very long, so large path loss is large

Earth station • Noticeable signal delay in signal (up and back) ~ 0.25secs
• Launch costs high (for high orbit)
 Frequency bands
Different frequencies for uplink (earth to satellite) and downlink signals

Band Uplink frequency Downlink frequency

(GHz) (GHz)

C 6 4
Ku 14 11
Ka 30 20

• Bandwidth greater at higher frequencies

• But path loss also greater
• Higher power TXRs and more sensitive RXRs used to overcome this
Example: Calculation of specifications for a satellite comms link

A satellite communications system comprises an orbiting antenna which

transmits 4 W of 4 GHz power to an earth station 36 000 km away.

(a) If the transmitter gain is 1053 and its aperture efficiency is 60%, calculate the
effective area, and hence the real area, of this orbiting antenna.

4 GHz corresponds to: l = c/4x109 = 0.075 m

4Aeff Gt 2
Basic antenna equation: Gt  2
 Aeff 
 4
Giving: 1053  0.0752
Aeff   0.471 m 2
4
A
Efficiency:   eff  100%  60%
A
Aeff 0.471  100
Giving: A  100%   0.79 m 2 N.B. A dish of radius 0.5 m
 60 has an area of pr2 = 0.79 m2
(b) The minimum detectable signal at the ground antenna is 10-10 W. Use the Friis
transmission equation to calculate the minimum required gain for this antenna.
2
  
Pr  Pt Gt Gr  
 4R 
2
P  4R  1010  4  36  106 
Gr  r       8.65  105
Pt Gt    4  1053  0.075 

10 log10 Gr  60 dB
(c) If the aperture efficiency of the ground antenna is 65% find the effective area,
and hence the real area, required to achieve this gain.

Using the basic equation:

4Aeff Gr 2 8.65  105  0.0752
Gr   Aeff    387 m 2
2 4 4

With 65% efficiency:

Aeff 387  100
A  100%   595 m 2
 65

• This corresponds to a dish diameter of 27.5 m

• Can reduce this requirement by using higher Pt or Gt

• OR lower minimum detectable power in receiver Pr

Power budget for satellite communications link

• cost of build and launch extremely high

• important to analyse all sources of signal loss
• optimise the power budget for most efficient performance
• must be able to just receive the signal under the worst case scenario

Minimum detectable signal depends on;

1) C/N – the carrier to noise ratio for satisfactory signal reception.

Value depends on type of information and modulation used

e.g. general purpose comms, C - N ~ 18 dB

FM TV, C - N ~ 9 dB
2) Receiver noise level, N (dBW)
(C–N)(dB) = Pt(dBW) + Gt(dB) + Lp(dB) + propagation & reception losses + Gr(dB) – N(dBW)
 Power budget (cont)

Signal to noise Signal to noise at RXR

required for adequate
reception
EIRP
Pt (dBW) (dBW)
+ Gt (dB)
+ Lp (dB) -C (dBW)

+ propagation losses (dB) negative

(losses)
+ reception losses (dB)
+ Gr (dB) Receiver
Minimum detectable Antenna
- N (dBW)
signal C - N (dB)
Available C - N (dB)
Columns must balance under worst case conditions, or Available C - N > minimum
Reception losses
1) Edge of coverage losses
• radiation from satellite will not be uniform over all of surface range covered.
• power budget must balance even for earth station on edge of coverage
zone
2) Mismatches at RXR antenna
• pointing losses due to imperfect alignment
• polarisation losses

Propagation losses
Atmospheric losses
• radiation passes through atmosphere and rain clouds
• absorption by water vapour (worse at higher frequency)
• power budget must balance for worst expected weather conditions
 Power budget example

Consider a 12 GHz direct broadcast satellite communication link for FM TV

with the following specifications:
(l = c/f = 3 x108 /12 x109 = 0.025 m)
TXR power = 200 W = +23 dBW
TXR antenna gain = 37 dB (EIRP = PtGt = 23+37 = 60 dBW)
height of TXR antenna above earth = 39,000 km
propagation loss = -0.5 dB     0.025 
L p  20 log10    20 log10  4   206dB
 4R   4  3.9  106 
RXR antenna diameter = 0.6 m
RXR antenna efficiency = 0.6
edge of coverage loss = -3 dB 4kA 4  0.6    0.32
Gr    3411  35.3dB
2 0.0252
other reception losses = -2 dB
RXR noise power = -127.3 dBW
 Required S/N Signal to noise at RXR Comments

Pt = 23 dBW Transmitted power = 23 dBW

+ Gt = 37 dB EIRP = 60 dBW

  
 L p  20 log   206dB
 4
+ propagation lossesR= - 0.5 dB Total signal received at centre of
coverage zone = -146.5 dBW

Total signal from ideal RXR at

centre of zone
4kA = -111 dBW
 Gr  2
 35.5dB

+ edge of coverage loss = -3 dB Total signal from actual RXR at
+ reception losses = -2 dB edge of coverage zone
C = - 116 dBW
Min. detectable - N = - (-127.3) dBW Worst case signal to noise at
C – N = 9 dB RXR C – N = 11.3 dB

Conclusion: the power budget leaves a + 2.3 dB margin.

i.e. could reduce TXR power, have less TXR or RXR gain, or use a noisier receiver
and still meet required S/N ratio