Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Communication Systems
B.P. Lathi & Zhi Ding
Adapted by: Hari M. Gupta
PRINCIPLES OF DIGITAL
DATA TRANSMISSION
5. Polar (NRZ)
• This coding is similar to polar (RZ) coding
except for the fact that the pulse does not
return back to zero.
Polar (NRZ) line coding
© Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved. 9
Multiplexer
• The capacity of a physical channel (e.g., coaxial cable, optic fiber) for
transmitting data is much larger than the data rate of individual sources.
To utilize this capacity effectively, we combine several sources by means
of a digital multiplexer.
• The input x(t) to the filter with impulse response h(t) = p(t) results in the output y(t),
If p(t) ⇐⇒ P(f ), the transfer function of the filter is H(f ) = P(f ), then
• Thus, the PSD of a line code is fully characterized by its Rn and the pulse-shaping
selection P(f ).
© Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved. 17
Polar Signaling
• In polar signaling, 1 is transmitted by a pulse p(t) and 0 is represented by −p(t).
In this case, ak is equally likely to be 1 or −1, and a2k is always 1. Hence,
• We have,
• Hence, if the area under p(t) is made zero, P(0) is zero, Split-phase (Manchester or
and we have a dc null in the PSD. twinned-binary) signal
• When we use this pulse with polar line coding, the resulting signal is known as
Manchester code, or split-phase (also called twinned-binary), signal.
• The most important of the HDB codes is HDB3 format, which has been
adopted as an international standard.
• Now, we will examine how Sy(f ) is influenced by the pulse shape p(t), and we
learn how to shape a pulse p(t) to achieve a desired Sy(f ).
• The PSD Sy(f ) is strongly and directly influenced by the pulse shape p(t)
because Sy(f ) contains the term |P(f )|2. Thus, in comparison to the nature of
the line code, the pulse shape is a more direct and potent factor in terms of
shaping the PSD Sy(f ).
• The pulse p(t) goes to zero at t = −Tb and 2Tb, resulting in the pulse width (of
the primary lobe) 50% higher than that of the first criterion pulse. This pulse
broadening in the time domain leads to reduction of its bandwidth. This is the
second criterion proposed by Nyquist. This scheme of controlled ISI is also
known as correlative or partial-response scheme.
© Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved. 31
Duobinary Signaling
• For binary message bit Ik = 0, or 1, the
polar symbols are simply ak = 2Ik − 1.
• Under the controlled ISI, the samples of
the transmission signal y(t) are
• The remaining {bk} are zero-valued samples that imply transition: that is, the current
digit is 1 and the previous digit is 0, or vice versa. This means the digit detection
must be based on the previous digit.
• To mitigate this error propagation problem, we apply a effective mechanism known
as differential coding.
• The Fourier transform P(f) of the pulse p(t) is given The minimum bandwidth pulse that satisfies
by the duobinary pulse criterion
36
© Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved.
Pulse Relationship between Zero-ISI, Duobinary, and
Modified Duobinary
• We can establish the simple relationship between a pulse pa(t) satisfying the first
Nyquist criterion (zero ISI) and a duobinary pulse pb(t) (with controlled ISI).
• Modified partial-response signaling is often adopted to force a null at dc. One
notable example is the so-called modified duobinary signaling that requires.
• A similar argument indicates that pc(t) can be generated from any pulse pa(t)
satisfying the first Nyquist criterion via
• Equivalently, in the frequency domain, the duobinary pulse is
which uses sin (2πfTb) to force a null at dc to comply with the physical channel
constraint.
45
© Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved.
Minimum Mean Square Error Method
• An alternative approach is to minimize the mean square difference between
the equalizer output response po[k] and the desired zero ISI response. This is
known as the minimum mean square error (MMSE) method for designing
transversal filter equalizers.
• The MMSE method does not try to force the pulse samples to zero at 2N
points. Instead, we minimize the squared errors averaged over a set of output
samples.
• The solution to this minimization problem can be better represented in matrix
form as
where Pr† represents the Moore–Penrose pseudo-inverse of the nonsquare
matrix Pr of size (2K+1)×(2N+1). The MMSE design often leads to a more robust
equalizer for the reduction of ISI.
The complete timing extractor and time pulse generator for a polar
case
© Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved. 48
Detection Error
• The signal received at the detector consists of the equalized pulse train plus a
random channel noise. The noise can cause error in pulse detection.
• The detector’s decision of whether to declare 1 or 0 could be made readily
from the pulse sample, except that the noise value n is random, meaning that
its exact value is unpredictable.
• The meaningful performance comparison is the likelihood of detection error,
or the detection error probability.
Channel output using the same polar line code and a different (RZ) pulse shape; its eye diagram
NRZ polar signal becomes waveform after passing through the nonideal channel; its eye diagram
51
© Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved.
Eye Diagrams
Eye diagrams of a polar signaling system using a raised cosine pulse with roll-off factor 0.5: (a) over 2 symbol periods 2T b
with a time shift T b/2; (b) without time shift
© Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved. 54
PAM: M-ary Baseband Signaling For Higher Data Rate
• Regardless of which line code is used, binary baseband modulations have one
thing in common: they all transmit one bit of information over the interval of
Tb second, or at the bit rate of 1/Tb bit per second.
• For each symbol transmission within the time interval of Tb to carry more bits,
there must be more than two symbols to choose from. By increasing the
number of symbols to M, we ensure that the information transmitted by each
symbol will also increase with M.
• In general, the information IM transmitted by an M-ary symbol is
4-Ary PAM signaling: (a) four RZ symbols; (b) baseband transmission; (c) the 4-ary RZ eye diagram.
56
© Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved.
Pulse Shaping and Eye Diagrams in PAM
• In this case, we can use the Nyquist criterion
pulses because these pulses have zero ISI at the
sample points, and, therefore, their amplitudes
can be correctly detected by sampling at the
pulse centers. We can also use the controlled ISI
for M-ary signaling.
• Eye diagrams can also be generated for M-ary
PAM by using the same method used for binary
modulations.
• Because of multilevel signaling, the eye diagram
should have M levels at the optimum sampling
Eye diagrams of a 4-ary PAM signaling system
instants even when ISI is zero. using a raised-cosine pulse with roll-off factor
0.5: (a) over two symbol periods 2Tb with
© Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved. time offset Tb/2; (b) without time offset 57
Applications
N-BASE-TX
IEEE 802.3u
IEEE 802.3 has deprecated IEEE 802.3-2008 standard
• The line code ak = 0, 1 is on-off. When the carrier The modulating signal m(t)
amplitude is varied in proportion to m(t), we can write
the carrier modulated signal as
• PSD of ϕ(t) is
PSD of PSK
PSD of FSK
© Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved. 62
Connections between Analog and Digital Carrier Modulations
• There is a natural and clear connection between ASK and AM because the
message information is directly reflected in the varying amplitude of the
modulated signals. Because of its nonnegative amplitude, ASK is essentially an
AM signal with modulation index μ = 1.
• There is a similar connection between FSK and FM. FSK is simply an FM signal
with only limited number of instantaneous frequencies.
• Also, the digital PSK modulation is closely connected with the analog QAM (or
DSB-SC AM) signal.
© Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved. Differential PSK receiver 67
M-ary Digital Carrier Modulation
• The binary digital carrier modulations of ASK, FSK, and PSK all transmit one bit
of information over the interval of Tb second, or at the bit rate of 1/Tb bit/s.
• Specifically, we can apply M-level ASK, M-frequency FSK, and M-phase PSK
modulations.
© Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved. 68