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The Two-Body Problem
The Two-Body Problem
3.1
The two-body problem
• The two-body problem: two point objects in 3D
interacting with each other (closed system)
2
i 1 j 1 i 1
2 2
m1 (r1 ) m2 (r2 ) 2
V (r1 r2 )
2 2
2 2
m1 (r1 ) m2 (r2 ) 2
L V (r1 r2 )
2 2
2
2
m2 r m1r
m1 R m2 R
m1 m2
2
m1 m2
2
V (r )
2
2 2
m1m2 Rr m1 m2 r m1m2 Rr
2
m1 ( R) m2 ( R)
2 m1 m2 2(m1 m2 ) 2
2 m1 m2
2 2 2
(m1 m2 )( R)
V r
V r
m2 m1r m1m2 (r )
2(m1 m2 ) 2
2 2(m1 m2 )
3.1
New generalized coordinates
• The Lagrangian in the new coordinates:
2 2
(m1 m2 )( R)
V r
m1m2 (r )
L
2 2(m1 m2 )
• The center of mass coordinates are cyclic!
• Constant term
3.1
New generalized coordinates
• The re-gauged Lagrangian:
2 2
V r V r
m1m2 (r ) m(r ) m1m2
L' m
2(m1 m2 ) 2 m1 m2
• We reduced the two-body problem to a one-body
problem in a central potential (potential that depends
only on the distance from the origin)
• m: reduced mass
2 2
• Central potential is spherically symmetric
r
2 2
m(r r r sin )
2 2 2 2
• Then L' V (r )
2
3.2
Spherical coordinates
L' m(r 2 r 2 2 r 2 sin 2 2 ) / 2 V (r )
• The Euler-Lagrange equation for φ
d L' L' L' p const
r 2
m sin 2
dt
p
• The φ coordinate is cyclic 2
r m sin 2
• Since the system is spherically symmetric, we have
a freedom of choosing the reference frame
dt r r r
• Momentum conjugate to the r coordinate
L'
pr mr
r
• Now we can write a Hamiltonian
1 p
2
H pr r p p L' pr 2 V ( r )
2
2m r
3.2
The effective potential
2 2
pr p
H 2
V (r ) p const
2m 2mr 2
p
• The effective potential Veff ( r ) 2
V (r )
2mr
• The Hamiltonian effectively depends only on 1
coordinate now
dt
2
2
r E
p
2 p
2
V ( r ) E V ( r )
m
2
m 2mr 2mr 2
• On the other hand
p
2 mr 2 d dr
mr dt mr d
2
p 2 p
2
p E V ( r )
• Orbit equation m 2mr 2
r
p dr
0
p
2
2m E V (r )
r0 2
r 2
2mr
3.5
The orbit equation
r
p dr
0
p
2
2m E
r0
r 2
2
V ( r )
2 mr
• The orbit equation can be integrated for potentials
with the power dependence on the distance
V (r ) ar n
r r0 e
2
d 1 dr 1 mr dV
2 2
d r d r p dr
1 1
e
m r0e 2
dV 1 1 mr 2 dV
2
r0 r0e p
2
dr r r p dr
2 2 2
dV 2 p 2 p dr p
V V0 V0
dr mr 3 mr 3
mr 2
3.6
Stable circular orbits
• For a circular orbit: r const r 0
H pr pr 0
• On the other hand r
pr m
2
H
2
p dV p dV
p r 0 3
r mr 3
dr mr dr
d p
2 2
p dV (r )
V ( r ) 0 3 0
dr 2mr 2
mr dr
• Extremum of the of the effective potential
corresponds to a circular orbit
3.6
Stable circular orbits
• For a stable circular orbit, the second derivative of
the of the effective potential should be positive:
d p
2 2
2 2
2 2
V (r ) 0 3 p
d V (r )
0
dr 2mr mr 4
dr 2
2 2 2
d V (r ) 3 p d V (r ) 3 dV p
2
dV
dr 2
mr 4
dr 2
r dr mr 3 dr
• For potentials with the power dependence on the
distance V (r ) ar
n
3n n 1
n(n 1)ar n2
ar n 1 3 n 2
r
10.5
Application of the Hamilton-Jacobi
theory
• The problem of spherically symmetric potential can
be neatly treated employing Hamilton-Jacobi theory
L' m(r 2 r 2 2 r 2 sin 2 2 ) / 2 V (r )
H pr r p p L'
1 2 p
2
p
2
pr 2 2 2 V ( r )
2m r r sin
• Then equation for Hamilton’s characteristic function
1 W
2
1 W
2
1 W
2
2 2 2 V 1
2m r r r sin
10.5
Application of the Hamilton-Jacobi
theory
1 W
2
1 W
2
1 W
2
2 2 2 V 1
2m r r r sin
• Let us assume that the variables can be separated
W (r , , ) Wr (r ) W ( ) W ( )
• Then
1 2
Wr ' 2 W ' 2 2 W ' V 1
2 1 2 1
2m r r sin
•The φ coordinate is cyclic, therefore
W ' W
10.5
Application of the Hamilton-Jacobi
theory
2
r sin
• The circled part should be constant, since it 2
contains only the θ dependence
W '
2
2
2
Wr '2
2
2mV 2m1
r
•The variables are completely separated!
du 2u 2mk
2
u u 2
arccos
4
2 p
3.7
The Kepler problem 2mk
2u 2
p
0 arccos
2
up
2 2mk 2mE
1 2 4 2
p
0 arccos km p
2
2 Ep
1 2
2
mk 2
2 Ep up 1
1 1 2
cos( 0 ) u
mk km r
km 2 1
1 1
2 Ep
cos( )
p r
2 2 0
mk
3.7
The Kepler problem
km
1 km 2 C
2 1 1
2 Ep
cos( ) p
2
r p mk 2 0
2
2 Ep
1 e
C 1 e cos( 0 )
1 2
mk
r
• We obtained an explicit expression for the orbit
rx
C 1 e cos( 0 ) cos( 0 )
• If e 0
1
r r
1 rx 1
r 1 e r erx r erx h erx
C r C
rx ry r h 2erx h e rx
2 2 2 2 h
a
2 2
1 e 2
(1 e )rx 2erx h ry h
2 2 2 2
2 2
2
2 eh
1 e eh 1 e rx 0
2 2
rx r 1
2 1 e 2
h 1 e h y
h
rx rx 0 ry
2 2
b
1 1 e2
a b
3.3
Classification of Kepler’s orbits 3.7
2
rx rx 0 ry
2
1 h
b
• If 0 e 1 a b 1 e2
1 e 2 2
• Then is real and b is positive
1 V (r ) mk 2
2 2
2 Ep mk
0 e 1 0 1 2
1 2
E0
mk 2 p
Veff (rmin ) E 0
• Elliptic motion is limited by two
values of r Aphelion
Perihelion
3.3
Classification of Kepler’s orbits 3.7
2
rx rx 0 ry
2
1
a b
h h
b a 2
b 2
a e
1 e 2
1 e 2
a
• This parameter is known as an eccentricity of an
ellipse
eh h
rx 0 a rx 0
1 e 2
1 e
• For a constant energy, perihelion
is decreasing with increasing eccentricity
3.3
Classification of Kepler’s orbits 3.7
22
rxx rxx 00 ryy
22
1 h
• If e 1 a b' 1 e2
b
1 e 2 2
• Then is imaginary and b is negative
1
a b'
2
e 1 2 Ep
1 2
1 E 0
mk
• Hyperbolic motion is limited by one
value of r - perihelion
3.3
Classification of Kepler’s orbits 3.7
(1 e )rx 2erx h ry h
2 2 2 2
• Finally, if e 1
2
h r
rx
y
2rx h ry h
2 2
• Then
2 2h
• The orbit is a parabola with its center shifted from
the origin by h / 2
ma3
• For ψ = 2π (one period): t 2
k
3.8
A bit of history: Kepler’s laws
mk / 2 p E 0
2 2
0 e 1
3.8
A bit of history: Kepler’s laws
• Second law: “The radius vector to a planet sweeps
out area at a rate that is independent of its position in
the orbit” dA d
dA r (rd ) / 2 r r /2
dt dt
2
A p const
r
2 m
p r m const
2
2 2 2 E
2m r r r sin r
• By definition, the action variables are
W W
J r pr dr dr J p d d
r
W
J p d d
10.8
The Kepler problem in action-angle
variables
W
• We found earlier for the two-body problem
W
2
2
W
2
k
2
2 2m E 2
2
sin r r r
• Therefore
W
J d d 2
W 2
J d 2 d 2 ( )
2
sin
10.8
The Kepler problem in action-angle
variables
W k
2
Jr dr 2m E 2 dr
r r r
k J J
2
2m
2m E dr J J k
r 4 r
2 2
E
2 2 mk 2
E 2 H
( J r J J )
• Frequencies
H H H 4 mk2 2
vr v v
J r J J ( J r J J ) 3
10.8
The Kepler problem in action-angle
variables
H H H 4 mk
2 2
vr v v
J r J J ( J r J J ) 3
2 mk
2 2
2 mk 2 2
H
( J r J J ) 2
J3
2
10.8
The Kepler problem in action-angle
variables
2 2 mk 2
H 2
J3
• This Hamiltonian is cyclic in 5 variables, therefore
their 5 corresponding conjugates are conserved:
J1 J 2p const
J 2 J J 2p 2 ( p p ) 2p const
2m w2 const
J 3 k const w1 const
E
• We obtained 5 constants of motion for a system with
6 degrees of freedom (the last two can be shown to
be related to certain orbit parameters)
3.10
Repulsive Kepler potential
k
• Let us consider a repulsive potential: V ( r ) ; k 0
r
• Total mechanical energy: E T V
T 0 V 0 E 0
p dr
• Orbit equation
0
2
k p
1
C e cos( 0 ) 1 r 2
2 m E
r 2 mr 2
r
2
km 2 Ep
C 2 e 1 2
1
p mk
3.10
Repulsive Kepler potential
C e cos( 0 ) 1
1 k e
r a r
C (1 e )
x 0 2
2 2 E
rx rx 0 ry
2
1 1
a b b
C e2 1
• This is a hyperbola
1
a b
• Scattering – the orbit is never closed for E > 0
3.10
Scattering
2
rx rx 0 ry
2
1
a b
• Scattering angle: s
• Impact parameter: b
s 2
2
1 a
s 2 2 tan
b k
• On the other hand: a
k 2E
s 2 tan 1
2 Eb
3.10
Scattering
• For a beam of (noninteracting) particles incident on
the scattering center, intensity (flux density) is the
number of particles crossing unit area normal to the
beam in unit time
dN
d
I
• Differential scattering cross-section:
3.10
Scattering cross-section
dN
d 2 sin s d s d
I
• Conservation of the number of particles:
Ernest Rutherford
(1871 – 1937)
3.10
Total scattering cross-section
• Total scattering cross-section
k 2 sin s d s
2
T d
2 4
0 0 4 E sin s
2
• It diverges because of the long-range nature of
Kepler’s potential
• Initially
m1r10 m2 r20
R const
m1 m2
m2 r m1r
r1 R ; r2 R
m1 m2 m1 m2
3.11
Laboratory coordinates
m1r10
m1r10 mr10
R r1 R r1 ' r1 ' r1 '
m1 m2 m1 m2 m2
mv10
v1 v1 '
m2
mv10 v1 sin v1 ' sin s
v1 cos v1 ' cos s
m2
• Taking the ratio of these two equations:
sin s
tan
mv10
cos s
m2 v1 '
3.11
Laboratory coordinates
• Now we can write the differential scattering cross
section expressed in laboratory system
L ( ) ( s )
sin s d s
( s )
1 2 cos s
2 3/ 2
sin d 1 cos s
sin s
tan mv10
mv10
cos s m2 v1 '
m2 v1 '
3.12
The three-body problem
• The Lagrangian of the system in Cartesian
coordinates:
2 2 2
m1 (r1 ) m2 (r2 ) m3 (r3 )
L
2 2 2
2
2
V (r1 r2 ) V (r1 r3 ) V
2
(r2 r3 )
• This problem has 9 independent coordinates
entangled by the 3 potential functions