Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

Dr. Om Prakash Singh

Asst. Prof., IIT Mandi
www.omprakashsingh.com
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude
• Many problems of interest in fluid mechanics cannot be solved using the integral
and/or differential equations.
• Wind motions around a football stadium, the air flow around the deflector on a
semitruck, the wave motion around a pier or a ship, and air flow around aircraft are
all examples of problems which are studied in the laboratory with the use of
models.
• A laboratory study with the use of models is very expensive, however, and to
minimize the cost, dimensionless parameters are used.
• In fact, such parameters are also used in numerical studies for the same reason.
• Once an analysis is done on a model in the laboratory and all quantities of interest
are measured, it is necessary to predict those same quantities on the prototype,
such as the power generated by a large wind machine from measurements on a
much smaller model.
• Similitude is the study that allows us to predict the quantities to be expected on a
prototype from measurements on a model.
• This will be done after our study of dimensional analysis that guides the model
study.
Dimensional Analysis
• Dimensionless parameters are obtained using a method called dimensional
analysis.
• It is based on the idea of dimensional homogeneity: all terms in an equation must
have the same dimensions.
• By simply using this idea, we can minimize the number of parameters needed in an
experimental or analytical analysis, as will be shown.
• Any equation can be expressed in terms of dimensionless parameters simply by
dividing each term by one of the other terms.
• For example, consider Bernoulli’s equation,

(1)

Now, divide both sides by gz2 . The equation can then be written as

(2)

Note the dimensionless parameters, V2/gz and p/ z

Example for Dimensional Analysis
• Suppose the drag force is desired on an
object with a spherical front that is
shaped as shown in Fig.
• A study could be performed, the drag
force measured for a particular radius R
and length L in a fluid with velocity V,
viscosity , and density .
• Gravity is expected to not influence the
force. This dependence of the drag force
on the other variables would be written
as Flow around an object

(3)

• To present the results of an experimental study, the drag force could be plotted
as a function of V for various values of the radius R holding all other variables
fixed.
• Then a second plot could show the drag force for various values of L holding all
other variables fixed, and so forth.
Example for Dimensional Analysis

Fig. 2 Drag force versus velocity: (a) L, ,  fixed; (b) R, ,  fixed.

• The plots may resemble those of Fig. 2 above. To vary the viscosity holding the
density fixed and then the density holding the viscosity fixed, would require a
variety of fluids leading to a very complicated study, and perhaps an impossible
study.
Example for Dimensional Analysis
• The actual relationship that would relate the drag force to the other variables
could be expressed as a set of dimensionless parameters, much like those of Eq.
(2), as

(3)

(4)

• The procedure to do this will be presented next.

• The results of a study using the above relationship would be much more organized
than the study suggested by the curves of Fig. 2.
• An experimental study would require only several different models, each with
different R/L ratios, and only one fluid, either air or water.
• Varying the velocity of the fluid approaching the model, a rather simple task, could
vary the other two dimensionless parameters.
• A plot of FD/ (V2 R2) versus ρVR/ for the several values of R/L would then provide
the results of the study.
Dimensional analysis
• Nondimensionalization of an equation by inspectional analysis is useful only when
one knows the equation to begin with.
• However, in many cases in real-life engineering, the equations are either not known or
too difficult to solve; often times experimentation is the only method of obtaining
reliable information.
• In most experiments, to save time and money, tests are performed on a
geometrically scaled model, rather than on the full-scale prototype.
• In such cases, care must be taken to properly scale the results.
• We introduce here a powerful technique called dimensional analysis. While
typically taught in fluid mechanics, dimensional analysis is useful in all disciplines,
especially when it is necessary to design and conduct experiments.
• You are encouraged to use this powerful tool on other subjects as well, not just in
fluid mechanics. The three primary purposes of dimensional analysis are

• To generate nondimensional parameters that help in the design of experiments

(DoE) (physical and/or numerical) and in the reporting of experimental results
• To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance can be predicted from
model performance
• To (sometimes) predict trends in the relationship between parameters
Dimensional analysis and similarity
• Before discussing the technique of dimensional analysis, we first explain the
underlying concept of dimensional analysis—the principle of similarity.
• There are three necessary conditions for complete similarity between a
model and a prototype.
• The first condition is geometric similarity—the model must be the same
shape as the prototype, but may be scaled by some constant scale factor.
• The second condition is kinematic similarity, which means that the velocity at
any point in the model flow must be proportional (by a constant scale factor) to
the velocity at the corresponding point in the prototype flow

Fig.: Kinematic similarity is achieved when, at all

locations, the velocity in the model flow is
proportional to that at corresponding locations
in the prototype flow, and points in the same
direction. In other words, ratio of velocity must
remain constant.
Dimensional analysis and similarity
• The third and most restrictive similarity condition is that of dynamic similarity.
• Dynamic similarity is achieved when all forces in the model flow scale by a
constant factor to corresponding forces in the prototype flow (force-scale
equivalence).
• As with geometric and kinematic similarity, the scale factor for forces can be
less than, equal to, or greater than one.

All three similarity conditions must exist for complete similarity to be ensured.

In a general flow field, complete similarity between a model and

prototype is achieved only when there is geometric, kinematic, and
dynamic similarity.
 Wind Tunnel Testing
We match the Reynolds numbers for the full
scale model and prototype.

which can be solved for the required wind

tunnel speed for the model tests Vm

While drag coefficient CD is a strong function

of the Reynolds number at low values of Re,
CD often levels off for Re above some value.
In other words, for flow over many
objects, especially “bluff” objects like trucks,
buildings, etc., the flow is Reynolds number
independent above some threshold value of
Re (Fig., typically when the boundary layer
and the wake are both fully turbulent.
For many objects, the drag coefficient levels off at
Reynolds numbers above some threshold value. This
fortunate situation is called Reynolds number
independence. It enables us to extrapolate to
prototype Reynolds numbers that are outside of the
range of our experimental facility.
Problem
The aerodynamic drag of a new sports car is to be predicted at a speed of
50.0 mi/h at an air temperature of 25°C. Automotive engineers build a one fifth
scale model of the car to test in a wind tunnel. It is winter and the wind tunnel is
located in an unheated building; the temperature of the wind tunnel air is only
about 5°C. Determine how fast the engineers should run the wind tunnel in
order to achieve similarity between the model and the prototype.

Ans: 221 mi/h

Hind: Reynolds number should be same both in model and prototype

Dimensions of fluid variables
• There are only three basic dimensions, since Newton’s second law can be used to
relate the basic dimensions.
• Using F, M, L, and T as the dimensions on force, mass, length, and time, we see that
F= ma demands that the dimensions are related by

(5)

• We choose to select the M-L-T system (F-L-T system can also be used) and use Eq.
(5) to relate F to M, L, and T.
• If temperature is needed, as with the flow of a compressible gas, an equation of
state, such as

could be expressed dimensionally as

where the brackets mean “the dimensions of.” Note that the product RT does
not introduce additional dimensions.
Dimensions of fluid variables

Symbols and Dimensions of Quantities of

Interest Using the M-L-T System
 Dimensional analysis
1. Rayleigh method (or power series)
2. Buckingham  theorem

• Above are methods to convert a dimensional relationship into non-dimensional

form
• Dimensional analysis is used to test models in
• Civil Engineering: study of structures such as dams, spillways, canals etc. to
predict the working of full suze structure
• Mechanical engineering: model tests on pumps, compressors, engines,
turbine etc.
• Aeronautical engineering: Model tests on aeroplanes, rockets, missiles in wind
tunnel
• Naval Engineering: Model tests on ships, submarines etc.
• Architectural engineering: Model tests on buildings to predict wind loads,
airflow pattern; helps in design passage ways, thermal comport of the
buildings
Rayleigh method (or power series)

The Rayleigh’s method is based on the following steps:

1. First of all, write the functional relationship with the given data.
2. Now write the equation in terms of a constant with exponents i.e. powers a,
b, c,...
3. With the help of the principle of dimensional homogeneity, find out the
values of a, b, c, ... By obtaining simultaneous equation and simplify it.
4. Now substitute the values of these exponents in the main equation, and
simplify it.
5. If the number of exponents involved is more than 3, then the exponents of
the properties D, V, and  are evaluated in terms of other exponents. That
helps to group the variables into recognized dimensionless parameters.
Problem using Rayleigh method
Show that the resistance force F to the motion of a sphere of diameter D moving
with a uniform velocity V through a real fluid of density  and viscosity  is given by

𝐹 𝜇
= f
𝜌𝐷2 𝑉 2 𝜌𝑉𝐷
Buckingham  theorem
• Rayleigh method becomes laborious and cumbersome when large number of
physical variables are involved.
• The Buckingham  theorem is used to create the dimensionless parameters, given
a functional relationship such as that of Eq. (3). Write the primary variable of
interest as a general function, such as

• where n is the total number of variables.

• If m is the number of basic dimensions, usually 3, the Buckingham  theorem
demands that (n− m) dimensionless groups of variables, the  terms, are
related by,

• The  term 1 is selected to contain the dependent variable [it would be FD of Eq. (3)]
and the remaining  terms contain the independent variables.
• It should be noted that a functional relationship cannot contain a particular
dimension in only one variable; for example, in the relationship v=f(d, t, ρ) the
density  cannot occur since it is the only variable that contains the dimension M,
and M would not have the possibility of canceling out to form a dimensionless 
term.
Buckingham  theorem
Steps:
The steps that are followed when applying the Buckingham  theorem are:
1. Write the dependent variable as a function of the (n–1) independent
variables. This step requires knowledge of the phenomenon being studied. All
variables that influence the dependent variable must be included and all
variables that do not influence the dependent variable should not be
included. In most problems, this relationship will be given.
2. Identify the m repeating variables that are combined with the remaining
variables to form the  terms. The m variables must include all the basic
dimensions present in the n variables of the functional relationship, but they
must not form a dimensionless  term by themselves. Note that an angle is
dimensionless, so it is not a candidate to be a repeating variable.
3. Combine each of the (n– m) variables with the repeating variables to form the
 terms. Step 3 is carried out by either inspection or by an algebraic
procedure.
4. Write the  term containing the dependent variable as a function of the
remaining  terms.
5. Suitable non-dimensional group results when repeating variables are choses
as geometric property (such as length), a fluid property (such as density) and
flow characteristics (such as velocity).
Buckingham  theorem
Example
The method of inspection will be used in an example. To demonstrate the algebraic
procedure, let’s form a  term of the variables V, R, , and . This is written as

In terms of dimensions, this is

Equating exponents on each of the basic dimensions provides the system of

equations:
Buckingham  theorem
The solution is

The  term is then written as

• This  term is dimensionless regardless of the value of d.

• If we desire V to be in the denominator, select d =1; if we desire V to be in
the numerator, select d = −1. Select d = −1 so that

Suppose that only one  term results from an analysis. That  term would then
be equal to a constant which could be determined by a single experiment.
Buckingham  theorem
• Finally, consider a very general functional relationship between a pressure change Δp,
a length l, a velocity V, gravity g, viscosity , a density , the speed of sound c, the
surface tension  , and an angular velocity Ω.
• All of these variables may not influence a particular problem, but it is interesting to
observe the final relationship of dimensionless terms.
• Dimensional analysis, using V, l, and  as repeating variables provides the relationship

Each term that appears in this relationship is an important parameter in certain

flow situations.
Buckingham  theorem
The dimensionless term with its common name is listed as follows:
Flows with Free Surfaces: Froude number
• For the case of model testing of flows with free surfaces (boats and ships, floods, river
flows, aqueducts, hydroelectric dam spillways, interaction of waves with piers, soil erosion,
etc.), complications arise that preclude complete similarity between model and prototype.

• For example, if a model river is built to study flooding, the model is often several hundred times
smaller than the prototype due to limited lab space. If the vertical dimensions of the model were
scaled proportionately, the depth of the model river would be so small that surface tension
effects (and the Weber number) would become important, and would perhaps even
dominate the model flow, even though surface tension effects are negligible in the
prototype flow.

• In addition, although the flow in the actual river may be turbulent, the flow in the model river
may be laminar, especially if the slope of the riverbed is geometrically similar to that of the
prototype. To avoid these problems, researchers often use a distorted model in which the
vertical scale of the model (e.g., river depth) is exaggerated in comparison to the horizontal
scale of the model (e.g., river width). In addition, the model river bed slope is often made
proportionally steeper than that of the prototype. These modifications result in incomplete
similarity due to lack of geometric similarity.

• Model tests are still useful under these circumstances, but other tricks (like deliberately
roughening the model surfaces) and empirical corrections and correlations are required to
properly scale up the model data.
Flows with Free Surfaces: Froude number
In many practical problems involving free surfaces, both
the Reynolds number and Froude number appear as relevant
independent  groups in the dimensional analysis (Fig.). It is
difficult (often impossible) to match both of these
dimensionless parameters simultaneously. For a free-
surface flow with length scale L, velocity scale V, and
kinematic viscosity , the Reynolds number is matched
between model and prototype when

The Froude number is matched between model and In many flows involving a liquid with
prototype when a free surface, both the Reynolds
number and Froude number are
relevant nondimensional
parameters. Since it is not always
To match both Re and Fr, we solve above possible to match both Re and Fr
simultaneously for the required length scale factor between model and prototype, we
Lm/Lp are sometimes forced to settle for
incomplete similarity.
Flows with Free Surfaces: Froude number
Eliminating the ratio Vm/Vp from above Eq., we see that the required ratio of
kinematic viscosities to match both Re and Fr:

Thus, to ensure complete similarity (assuming geometric similarity is

achievable without unwanted surface tension effects as discussed
previously), we would need to use a liquid whose kinematic viscosity
satisfies above Eq.
Problem
In the late 1990s the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers designed an experiment to
model the flow of the Tennessee River
downstream of the Kentucky Lock and
Dam (Fig. ). Because of laboratory
space restrictions, they built a scale
model with a length scale factor of
Lm/Lp = 1/100. Suggest a liquid that
would be appropriate for the experiment.

Ans: m = 1.00 x 10-9 m2/s

Note on previous problem
• We need to find a liquid that has a viscosity of 1.00 x 10-9 m2/s. A quick
glance through the property table yields no such liquid. Hot water has a
lower kinematic viscosity than cold water, but only by about a factor of
3. Liquid mercury has a very small kinematic viscosity, but it is of order
10-7 m2/s—still two orders of magnitude too large to satisfy .

• Even if liquid mercury would work, it would be too expensive and too
hazardous to use in such a test. What do we do? The bottom line is that
we cannot match both the Froude number and the Reynolds number in
this model test.

• In other words, it is impossible to achieve complete similarity between

model and prototype in this case. Instead, we do the best job we can
under conditions of incomplete similarity. Water is typically used in such
tests for convenience.
Buckingham  theorem
• Not all of the above numbers would be of interest in a particular flow; it is highly
unlikely that both compressibility effects and surface tension would influence the
same flow.
• These are, however, the primary dimensionless parameters in our study of fluid
mechanics.
• The Euler number is of interest in most flows used to characterize losses in the flow
(pressure drop by kinetic energy per unit volume) where a perfect frictionless flow
corresponds to an Euler number of 1; the Froude number in flows with free surfaces
in which gravity is significant (e.g., wave motion), it the ratio of a characteristic
velocity to a gravitational wave velocity; the Reynolds number in flows in which
viscous effects are important, the Mach number in compressible flows, the Weber
number in flows affected by surface tension (e.g., sprays with droplets), it is a
measure of the relative importance of the fluid's inertia compared to its surface
tension; and the Strouhal number in flows in which rotation or a periodic motion
plays a role.
• Each of these numbers, with the exception of the Weber number (surface tension
effects are of little engineering importance), will appear in flows studied in other
cases.
• Note: The Froude number is often defined as V2/lg; this would not influence the
solution to problems.
Problem
The pressure drop Δp over a length L of pipe is assumed to depend on the average
velocity V, the pipe’s diameter D, the average height e of the roughness elements of
the pipe wall, the fluid density , and the fluid viscosity . Write a relationship
between the pressure drop and the other variables using Buckingham  theorem.

Ans:
 Problem
The speed V of a weight when it hits the floor is assumed to depend on gravity g, the
height h from which it was dropped, and the density  of the weight. Use dimensional
analysis and write a relationship between the variables.

Ans:

A simple experiment would show that C= 2

End