B59FC Fluid Mechanics B

Fluid Mechanics Lecture #5:Buckingham-π Theorem

Dimensional Analysis : Drag and Lift Example

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Example #3
Drag and Lift Forces
• An object (aircraft, boat, car) of a certain shape and size moves at
some speed through a fluid (air, water)
• To maintain the speed it has to overcome a drag force and it may
experience a lift force. One force known to result in drag forces is
due to the fluid’s viscosity
• To maintain the speed, the engine must burn fuel
Dimensional Analysis helps to identify the relevant parameters, to
design meaningful wind-tunnel tests, and to transfer our results from
the wind-tunnel tests to real-life situations and well-designed products.

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Example #3
Drag and Lift Forces
Variable Symbol Unit Dimensions
Length, width, height L, W, H m L
Frontal area A m2 L2
Density ρ kg/m3 ML–3
Viscosity μ kg/ms ML–1T–1
Speed u m/s LT–1
Drag and Lift forces FD, FL kgm/s2 MLT–2
Energy (fuel) consumption rate hm kgm2/s3 ML2T–3
Fuel Calorific Value h J/kg L2T-2
Fuel Mass Flow Rate m kg/s MT-1

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π Groups
• We have listed 7 parameters (if W and H are combined to give
frontal area)
• We could write all units with 3 fundamental units
• Therefore, we expect 4 π groups
• Because we have 3 fundamental units, we need to pick 3
repeating variables
• The 3 Repeating Variables:
– One geometric: Frontal Area, A
– One fluid property: Density, ρ
– One external factor: Velocity, u
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π Groups
• Implicit π group:

W
0  - Aspect Ratio
H

• Viscosity, μ [ML-1T-1]

 au b Ac uA0.5 - Reynolds Number

1  
 

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π Groups
• Forces, FD, FL [MLT–2]
FD - Drag Coefficient
 2  FD  u A 
a b c

Au 2

FL - Lift Coefficient
 3  FL  u A 
a b c

Au 2
• Fuel Consumption, hm [ML2T–3]
hm
 4  hm u A 
a b c

Au 3
0.5 Au 3
 - Efficiency
hm © Heriot-Watt University 2023
Principle of Similarity
• Most experiments conducted for design purposes
involve scaling and modelling of one form or
another.
• We can design geometric scale models without
difficulty but kinematic or dynamic scaling presents
another problem entirely.
• In the general field of experimental fluid
mechanics, a number of well known dimensionless
groups exists and are considered when modelling
flows.
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Hornby OO 1:76
Model Full Size

hornby.co.uk
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Dimensionless Groups

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Modelling
• Most experiments conducted for design purposes involve
modelling
• We can design geometric scale models without difficulty,
but kinematic/dynamic scaling presents a problem
• A number of dimensionless groups exist and are considered
when modelling flow

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 More Dimensionless Groups

These are used extensively in free and force convection analysis

where empirical equations based on these dimensionless groups
are the only design guides available to engineers.
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More Dimensionless Groups
The general rule for modelling is that all non-dimensional
parameters must be correctly modelled.
 model   prototype
Three necessary conditions for complete similarity between a
model and a prototype are:
Geometric Similarity – the model must be the same shape as the
prototype. Each dimension must be scaled by the same factor.
Kinematic Similarity – velocity at any point in the model must be
proportional by a constant scale factor.
Dynamic Similarity – all forces in the model flow scale by a constant factor
to corresponding forces in the prototype flow.

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Geometric Similarity
We can draw conclusions from some results for other
systems only if we use scale models
• Prototype of length Lp, width Wp, and height Hp
• Model of length Lm, width Wm, and height Hm
• If the model is to be smaller than the prototype, by a factor of 10, then:

Wm Lm H m 1
  
W p L p H p 10

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Kinematic Similarity
Two systems are kinematically similar if the π-terms
involving velocity or acceleration but not forces are
equal:

( 𝜌𝑢𝐷
𝜇 ) (
model
=
𝜌𝑢𝐷
𝜇 ) prototype

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Dynamic Similarity
Two systems are dynamically similar if the π-groups
involving forces are equal:
 FD   FD 
 
2 
  
2 
 Au  model  Au  prototype
and
 FL   FL 
 
2 
  
2 
 Au  model  Au  prototype

The general rule for modelling is that all non-

dimensional parameters must be correctly modelled.
 model   prototype © Heriot-Watt University 2023
Example #4
Scaling Flow in a Pipe
Air flow at 18°C in a 150mm diameter pipe is to be
used to study water flow at 10°C in a 300mm diameter
pipe to evaluate the performance of a valve. If the
water velocity is expected to be 1.5m/s, what velocity
of air flow is required? The model study indicates a loss
of 5kW under these conditions. What is the anticipated
loss in the prototype?

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 Example #4
Scaling Flow in a Pipe

Step 1: Establish Relevant Dimensionless Parameters

You may need to apply Buckingham π theory to establish these
groups. It is however well known that the equivalent Reynolds
number matching is important only if gravity and surface effects
are negligible and the air does not approach sonic velocity.

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Example #4
Scaling Flow in a Pipe
Step 2: Equate the Dimensionless Groups for both the
Scale Model and Prototype

( ) ( )
𝜌𝑢𝐷
𝜇 model
From Fluid Property Tables:
=
𝜌𝑢𝐷
𝜇 prototype

• Air at 18°C: ν = 15 x 10-6 m2/s

ρ = 1.2 kg/m3
• Water at 10°C: ν = 1.2 x 10-6 m2/s
ρ = 1000 kg/m3 © Heriot-Watt University 2023
Example #4
Scaling Flow in a Pipe

Step 3: Solve to find the Desired Value

𝐷 𝑝 𝜐𝑚
𝑢𝑚 =𝑢𝑝 =37.5 𝑚/ 𝑠
𝐷𝑚 𝜐 𝑝

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 Example #4
Scaling Flow in a Pipe
The power loss is related to the pressure drop across the
valve and the Euler Number is used to simulate this.
2 ℙ
Power , ℙ = Force x Velocity ≈ Δ 𝑃 𝐿 𝑢 ⇒ Δ𝑃≈ 2
𝐿 𝑢

𝐸𝑢=
Δ𝑃
𝜌𝑢( ) ⇒ ( 𝜌 𝐿 𝑢 ) =( 𝜌 𝐿 𝑢 )
2
ℙ
2 3
𝑚
ℙ
2 3
𝑝

ℙ ( )( )( )
2 3
𝜌𝑝 𝐿𝑝 𝑢𝑝
ℙ𝑝= 𝑚 =1.067 𝑘𝑊
𝜌𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝑢𝑚
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Consider 1:

Viscosity & Compressibility of Air

• Kinematic Parameters:
uD
Reynolds number Re 

u
Mach number Ma 
a

• Dynamic parameter:
FD
Drag coefficient CD 
0.5 Au 2

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 Consider 1:

Viscosity & Compressibility of Air

• If the speed of sound is constant (e.g. supersonic flight in
troposphere), then there is kinematic similarity for
compressibility effects only if the velocities are the same
across the two models. There is no way to change (ideally
lower) the speed of sound in the modelled space so that a
proportionately smaller device can be used.
• For low-altitude flight, there is kinematic similarity for
viscosity effects if the ratio uofm theL psizes is balanced by the
same ratio of the speeds: 
u p Lm

• For complete similarity, both need to be satisfied. Same

velocities and, following from that equal sizes. Therefore, we
cannot use scale models to test supersonic flight properly.
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 Consider 2:

Viscosity & Surface Waves

Ocean systems lab, Heriot-Watt

https://www.europaomdehoek.nl/nieuws/gedeputeerde-van-dijk-opent-proeftuin-tijdens-open-dag-marin-29-oktober
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Consider 2:

Viscosity & Surface Waves

• Kinematic Parameters:
uD
Reynolds number Re 

u
Froude number Fr 
gL 0.5
• Dynamic parameter:
Drag coefficient FD
CD 
0.5 Au 2

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 Consider 2:

Viscosity & Surface Waves

• There is kinematic similarity for surface wave effects
only if the velocities are related to the scale as:
0 .5
um  Lm 

u p  L p 
• If the water properties stay the same, then there is
kinematic similarity only if:

( )
1
𝑢𝑚 𝐿𝑝
=
𝑢𝑝 𝐿𝑚
• Therefore, we cannot use scale models to test ships
properly.
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