Manufacturing Techniques of FRP

Composites
 Hand lay Up
Open Mold processes
Automated Tape Laying

Compression Molding
Processes for Closed Mold processes
continuous fiber Resin Transfer Molding
PMCs Filament Winding

Pultrusion processes

FRP
Other Tube Rolling
Manufacturing
Techniques
Open Mold processes Spray Up

Compression Molding
Processes for short
fiber PMCs Closed Mold processes Transfer Molding

Injection Molding

Centrifugal Casting
Other
Continuous laminating
Open Molding Processes

● Family of FRP shaping processes that use a single

positive or negative mold surface to produce laminated
FRP structures Hand lay-up
● Raw materials (resins: unsaturated polyesters, epoxies
and reinforcements: fibreglass) are exposed to air as
Spray-up
they cure or harden.
● Most flexible of all composite fabrication processes
as part size and design options are virtually limitless. Filament Winding
● Typically used for a large size range of products that
cannot be produced in more automated processes, or Automated tape-laying machines
for parts that are produced in low volumes that cannot
justify the higher mold costs of automated processes.
Hand Lay-up Method
 Oldest and simplest open mold method for FRP laminates, dating to the 1940s when it was first
used for boat hulls
 Also called wet lay-up
 It involves building up layers of chopped glass or woven glass mat impregnated with catalyzed
resin around a suitable mold. The reinforcement is then rolled for better wet-out and removing
trapped air.

Materials Options
• Resins: Any, e.g. epoxy, polyester,
vinylester, phenolic.
• Fibres: Any, although heavy aramid
fabrics can be hard to wet-out by
hand.
• Cores: Any.
Hand Lay-up Method (Contd)

1. Mold is treated with mold release agent;

2. Thin gel coat (resin) is applied, to the outside surface of molding
3. When gel coat has partially set, layers of resin and fiber are
applied, the fiber is in the form of mat or cloth; each layer is rolled
to impregnate the fiber with resin and remove air
4. Part is cured
5. Fully hardened part is removed from mold.
Hand Lay-up Method (Contd)

Typical Applications
Generally large in size but low in production quantity - not economical for high production
– Standard wind-turbine blades, production boats, architectural mouldings, Boat hulls,
swimming pools, large container tanks, movie and stage props

Advantages
 Simple
 Any combination of fibres and matrix materials can be used.
 Low cost tooling, if room-temperature cure resins are used.
 Higher fibre contents, and longer fibres than with spray lay-up
 Perfect for prototypes and short production runs
The largest molding ever made was ship
hulls for the British Royal Navy: 85 m
(280 ft) long
Hand Lay-up Method (Contd)

Disadvantages

1. Labour intensive
2. Resin mixing, laminate resin contents, and laminate quality are very dependent on the skills of
laminators. Low resin content laminates cannot usually be achieved without the incorporation
of excessive quantities of voids.
3. Health and safety considerations of resins. The lower molecular weights of hand lay-up resins
generally means that they have the potential to be more harmful than higher molecular weight
products. The lower viscosity of the resins also means that they have an increased tendency to
penetrate clothing etc.
4. Resins need to be low in viscosity to be workable by hand. This generally compromises their
mechanical/thermal properties due to the need for high diluent/styrene levels.
Spray-Up Method

 Similar to hand lay-up but uses special Materials Options

equipment—most notably a chopper gun—to • Resins: Primarily polyester.
cut reinforcement material into short fibers, • Fibres: Glass roving only.
add them to resin and deposit the mixture • Cores: None. These have to be incorporated
(called chop) on to a molding surface. separately.
 More automated than hand lay-up and is
typically used to produce larger quantities.
 An attempt to mechanize application of resin-
fiber layers and reduce lay-up time
 Spray-Up Method (Contd)

Typical Applications
1. Fibre is chopped in a hand-held chopper gun and fed into a spray of
catalysed resin directed at the mould. • Suitable for small to medium-
2. Liquid resin and chopped fibers are sprayed simultaneously onto an volume parts.
open mold to build successive FRP laminations. • Simple enclosures, lightly loaded
3. The deposited materials are left to cure under standard atmospheric structural panels, caravan bodies,
conditions. truck fairings, bathtubs, shower trays,
some small dinghies
Spray-Up Method (Contd)
Advantages
 Economical
 Low cost tooling and material systems
 Errors can be corrected by re-spraying
Disadvantages:
1. Laminates tend to be very resin-rich and therefore excessively heavy, thus not suitable for making
parts that have high structural requirements.
2. Only short fibres are incorporated which severely limits the mechanical properties of the laminate.
3. Resins need to be low in viscosity to be sprayable.
4. Difficult to control the fiber volume fraction, thickness.
5. Because of its open mold nature, styrene emission is a concern.
6. The process offers a good surface finish on one side and a rough surface finish on the other side.
7. The process is not suitable for parts where dimensional accuracy and process repeatability are prime
concerns.
8. Cores, when needed, have to be inserted manually.
 Filament Winding Method
 An automated process that applies resin-saturated,
continuous strands of fiber reinforcements over a rotating
cylindrical mold.
 Fibre tows are passed through a resin bath before being
wound onto a mandrel in a variety of orientations,
controlled by the fibre feeding mechanism, and rate of
rotation of the mandrel.
Materials Options
• Resins: Any, e.g. epoxy, polyester,
vinylester, phenolic.
• Fibres: Any. The fibres are used straight
from a creel and not woven or stitched
into a fabric form.
• Cores: Any, although components are
usually single skin.
Typical Applications:
• Primarily used for hollow, generally
circular or oval sectioned components
• Chemical storage tanks and pipelines, gas
cylinders, fire-fighters' breathing tanks
Filament Winding Method (Contd)

1. Resin-impregnated continuous fibers are

wrapped around a rotating mandrel that has
the internal shape of the desired FRP
product
2. The resin is then cured and the mandrel
removed
3. The fiber rovings are pulled through a
resin bath immediately before being
wound in a helical pattern onto the
mandrel
4. The operation is repeated to form
additional layers, each having a criss-
cross pattern with the previous, until the
desired part thickness has been obtained
Filament Winding Method (Contd)

Advantages:
 Fast and thus economic method of laying material down.
 Resin content can be controlled by metering the resin onto each fibre tow through nips or dies.
 Minimum fibre cost since no secondary process to convert fibre into fabric prior to use.
 Good structural properties of laminates since straight fibres can be laid in a complex pattern to
match the applied loads.
Disadvantages:
• Limited to convex shaped components.
• Fibre cannot easily be laid exactly along the length of a component.
• High mandrel costs for large components
• The external surface of the component is unmoulded, and therefore cosmetically unattractive.
• Low viscosity resins usually need to be used with their attendant lower mechanical and health and
safety properties.
Automated Tape Laying

• Automated tape-laying machines operate by

dispensing a prepreg tape onto an open
mold following a programmed path
• Typical machine consists of overhead
gantry to which the dispensing head
is attached
• The gantry permits x-y-z travel of
the head, for positioning and
following a defined continuous
path
Closed Molding

 Performed in molds consisting of two sections that open and

close each molding cycle
Classification
 Dry reinforcements are laid into the base mold, the mold is
closed and resin is introduced into the closed cavity using a
Compression Molding
pressure pump or vacuum. When the laminate is cured, the
mold is opened and the part removed.
 Higher capital investment in tooling and equipment owing to Resin Transfer Molding
complexity
 Finished parts have better surface cosmetics Injection Molding
 Because resin is cured in a closed mold system, there are
significantly fewer emissions
 Higher production rates
Compression Molding

 A charge is placed in lower mold section, and the sections

are brought together under pressure, causing charge to
take the shape of the cavity
• Mold halves are heated to cure the thermosetting polymer.
When molding is sufficiently cured, the mold is opened and
part is removed
• Several shaping processes for PMCs based on
compression molding The differences are mostly in
the form of the starting materials
 Resin Transfer Molding
 A low pressure, closed-molding method in which
reinforcement material is loaded into a closed mold, the
mold is clamped, and resin is pumped in (through injection
ports) under pressure.
 Sometimes called liquid molding
 This process produces complex parts with smooth finishes
on both sides
 Process can be manual control, semi-automated or highly
automated.
Materials Options:
• Resins: Generally epoxy, polyester, vinyl ester
and phenolic, although high temperature
resins such as bismaleimides can be used at
elevated process temperatures.
• Fibres: Any. Stitched materials work well in
this process since the gaps allow rapid resin
transport. Some specially developed fabrics
can assist with resin flow.
• Cores: Not honeycombs, since cells would fill
with resin, and pressures involved can crush
some foams.
 Resin Transfer Molding (Contd)

1. Resin is transferred over the already placed

reinforcement
2. Reinforcement in terms of either woven mat or
strand mat form is placed on the surface of lower
half mold.
3. A release gel is applied on the mold surface for easy
removal of the composite.
4. The mold is properly closed and clamped. The
clamping can be done either perimeter clamping or
press clamping mechanism
5. The resin is pumped into the mold through ports
usually using vacuum pressure and air is displaced
through other vents
6. After curing, the mold is opened and composite
product is taken out
Resin Transfer Molding (Contd)
Typical Applications:
• Generally limited to smaller components.
• Small complex aircraft and automotive components, train seats.
Advantages:
 Fast cycle time can be achieved through temperature control tooling device.
 does not require high injection pressure
 High fibre volume laminates can be obtained with very low void contents.
 Good health and safety, and environmental control due to enclosure of resin.
 Possible labour reductions.
 Good surface finish on both side surface of the product.
Disadvantages:
1. Matched tooling is expensive, and heavy in order to withstand pressures.
2. Unimpregnated areas can occur resulting in very expensive scrap parts.
 Injection Molding
 Noted for low cost production of plastic parts in large quantities
Conventional injection molding
• Virtually all TPs can be reinforced
with fibers, can be adapted to TSs
• Chopped fibers must be used
–Continuous fibers would be reduced
by the action of the rotating screw in
the barrel
• During injection into the mold
cavity, fibers tend to become
aligned as they pass the nozzle
Reaction injection molding
(RIM)
Two reactive ingredients are
mixed and injected into a
mold cavity where curing
and solidification occur due
to chemical reaction
Advantages: no heat energy
required, lower cost mold),
with the added benefit of
fiber-reinforcement
Reinforced reaction injection
molding (RRIM)
• Similar to RIM but includes
reinforcing fibers, typically glass
fibers, in the mixture
• Advantages: similar to RIM
• Products: auto body,
truck cab applications
for bumpers, fenders,
and other body parts
Vacuum Bagging
 An extension of the wet lay-up process
where atmospheric pressure is used to
suck air from under vacuum bag, to
compact composite layers down and make
a high quality laminate
 Designed to improve the mechanical
properties of laminates (two or more
layers of fiber reinforcement bonded with a
resin).
Materials Options
• Resins: Primarily epoxy and phenolic.
Polyesters and vinylesters may have
problems due to excessive extraction
of styrene from the resin by the vacuum
pump
• Fibres: The consolidation pressures
mean that a variety of heavy fabrics
can be wet-out.
• Cores: Any
Vacuum Bagging (Contd)
1. Uniform pressure applied to the laminate after impregnation of the fibers
2. Pressure applied with the use of a flexible diaphragm or bag
3. Removal of excess resin Typical Applications:
4. Removal of air and volatiles from the matrix
• Large parts with complex
shapes
• Large, one-off cruising
boats, racecar components,
core-bonding in production
boats. Relatively
• Sonar domes, antenna
housings, aircraft fairings,
etc.
Vacuum Bagging (Contd)

Advantages
 Higher fibre content laminates can usually be achieved than with standard wet lay-up techniques.
 Lower void contents are achieved than with wet lay-up.
 Better fibre wet-out due to pressure and resin flow throughout structural fibres, with excess into
bagging materials.
 Health and safety: The vacuum bag reduces the amount of volatiles emitted during cure.

Disadvantages
1. The extra process adds cost both in labour and in disposable bagging materials
2. A higher level of skill is required by the operators
3. Mixing and control of resin content still largely determined by operator skill
Autoclave Molding
 Similar to pressure-bag and vacuum-bag moulding but uses a high pressure chamber instead.
 Autoclaves : essentially heated pressure vessels usually equipped with vacuum systems into which the
bagged lay-up on the mould is taken for the cure cycle.

High pressures (50 -100 psi) Increase in the fibre to resin Maximises performance of
Longer cure cycles. ratio thermoset composite
Higher temperatures Removal of all air voids materials

 Widely used in the aerospace industry to fabricate high

strength/weight ratio parts from pre-impregnated high strength
fibres
 Resin Film Infusion

A variation of vacuum bagging that uses Materials Options:

vacuum pressure to drive resin into a • Resins: Generally epoxy only.
laminate after the vacuum has pulled the • Fibres: Any.
bag down and compacted the laminate. • Cores: Most, although PVC foam needs special procedures
due to the elevated temperatures involved in the process.
1. Dry fabrics are laid up interleaved with
layers of semi-solid resin film supplied on a
release paper.
2. The lay-up is vacuum bagged to remove air
through the dry fabrics, and then heated to
allow the resin to first melt and flow into
the air-free fabrics, and then after a certain
time, to cure.
Resin Film Infusion (Contd)

Typical Applications:
Aircraft radomes and submarine sonar domes

Advantages:
 High fibre volumes can be accurately achieved with low void contents.
 Good health and safety and a clean lay-up
 High resin mechanical properties due to solid state of initial polymer material and elevated temperature
cure.

Disadvantages:
• An oven and vacuum bagging system is required to cure the component as for prepreg, although the
autoclave systems used by the aerospace industry are not always required.
• Tooling needs to be able to withstand the process temperatures of the resin film (60-100°C )
• Core materials need to be able to withstand the process temperatures and pressures
 Pultrusion

 Direct conversion of continuous fibers and resin into

Materials Options:
long, consistent shapes like rods or bars.
• Resins: Generally epoxy,
 Fibers continuously impregnated and pulled through a
polyester, vinylester and
heated die, where they are shaped and cured
phenolic.
 Continuous operation, so can be readily automated
• Fibres: Any.
 Adaptable to both simple and complex cross-
• Cores: Not generally used.
sectional shapes.
 Produces high strength structural shapes with high
volume reinforcements
 Moderate tooling and capital equipment cost
 Pultrusion (Contd)

1. Fibres are pulled from a creel through a resin bath

and then on through a heated die.
2. The die completes the impregnation of the fibre,
controls the resin content and cures the material
into its final shape as it passes through the die.
3. The sections produced are reinforced throughout
their length by continuous fibers
4. The pieces have a constant cross section, whose
profile is determined by the shape of the die opening
5. This cured profile is then automatically cut to
length.
6. Fabrics may also be introduced into the die to
provide fibre direction other than at 0°.
Pultrusion (Contd)

Typical Applications
• Used to manufacture constant cross-section shapes of any length
• Beams and girders used in roof structures, bridges, ladders, frameworks
Advantages
 Fast, thus economic, way of impregnating and curing materials.
 Resin content can be accurately controlled.
 Fibre cost is minimised since the majority is taken from a creel.
 Superior structural properties of laminates since the profiles have very straight fibres and high fibre
volume fractions can be obtained.
 Resin impregnation area can be enclosed thus limiting volatile emissions.
Disadvantages
• Limited to constant or near constant cross-section components
• Heated die costs can be high
Pulforming

 A variant of pultrusion for introducing

some variation to be introduced into the
cross-section.
 Pultrusion with additional steps to form
the length into a semicircular contour and
alter the cross section at one or more
locations along the length
 The process pulls the materials through
the die for impregnation, and then clamps
them in a mould for curing. This makes
the process non-continuous, but
accommodating of small changes in
cross-section.
Prepreg Moulding
 A highly specialised method of composite
manufacture mainly used in aviation
 Fabrics and fibres are pre-impregnated by the
materials manufacturer, under heat and pressure or
with solvent, with a pre-catalysed resin.
 The catalyst is largely latent at ambient temp giving
the materials several weeks, or sometimes months,
of useful life when defrosted. However to prolong
storage life the materials are stored frozen.
 The resin is usually a near-solid at ambient
temperatures, and so the pre-impregnated
materials (prepregs) have a light sticky feel to them,
such as that of adhesive tape.
Materials Options:
• Resins: Generally epoxy, polyester,
phenolic and high temperature resins
such as polyimides, cyanate esters and
bismaleimides.
• Fibres: Any. Used either direct from a
creel or as any type of fabric.
• Cores: Any, although special types of
foam need to be used due to the
elevated temperatures involved in the
process.
Prepreg Moulding (Contd)

1. Unidirectional materials take fibre direct from a creel, and are held together by the resin alone.
2. The prepregs are laid up by hand or machine onto a mould surface, vacuum bagged and then heated to
typically 120-180°C. This allows the resin to initially reflow and eventually to cure.
3. Additional pressure for the moulding is usually provided by an autoclave (effectively a pressurised oven)
which can apply up to 5 atmospheres to the laminate.

Typical Applications:

• Aircraft structural components (e.g.

wings and tail sections)
• F1 racing cars
• Sporting goods such as tennis
racquets and skis.
Prepreg Moulding (Contd)
Main Advantages:
 Resin/catalyst levels and the resin content in the fibre are accurately set by the materials manufacturer. High
fibre contents can be safely achieved.
 Excellent health and safety characteristics and are clean to work with.
 Minimum Fibre cost in unidirectional tapes since there is no secondary process to convert fibre into fabric
prior to use.
 Resin chemistry can be optimised for mechanical and thermal performance, with the high viscosity resins
being impregnable due to the manufacturing process.
 The extended working times (of up to several months at room temperatures) means that structurally
optimised, complex lay-ups can be readily achieved.
 Potential for automation and labour saving.

Main Disadvantages:
1. Materials cost is higher for preimpregnated fabrics.
2. Autoclaves (expensive, slow to operate and limited in size) are usually required to cure the component.
3. Tooling and core material need to be able to withstand the process temperatures involved
Low-Temp Prepreg
 Similar to conventional prepregs but have resin
chemistries that allow cure to be achieved at
temperatures from 60-100°C. At 60°C, the working life
of the material may be limited to as little as a week, but
above this working times can be as long as several
months.
 The flow profiles of the resin systems allow for the use
of vacuum bag pressures alone, avoiding the need for
autoclaves.
Typical Applications:
High-performance wind-turbine blades, large racing
and cruising yachts, rescue craft, train components.
Advantages over Conventional Prepeg molding
 Cheaper tooling materials (wood) can be
used due to the lower cure temperatures
involved.
 Large structures can be readily made since
only vacuum bag pressure is required, and
heating to these lower temperatures can be
achieved with simple hot-air circulated ovens,
often built in-situ over the component.
 Conventional PVC foam core materials can
be used, providing certain procedures are
followed.