WATER QUALITY

CHARACTERISTICS
EVT 525
nik azlin nik ariffin
 WHY WATER QUALITY DATA IS
NEEDED???

Waste For setting

loads vary consents,
Quality Quality at mass
For effluent
varies in varies different balance
description
space in time points in calculation
the and river
system modelling
 INTRODUCTION

 In practice, water in natural environment are never

pure: always contains impurities
 Three important factors affecting the community
structure in freshwater system and in lotic
environments in particular.
 Substrate
 Dissolved mineral concentration
 Dissolved oxygen

>>>Linked closely with the water temperature

CHARACTERISTICS

PHYSICAL

CHEMICAL

BIOLOGICAL
 PHYSICAL CHEMICAL BIOLOGICAL

a) Color a) Hardness a) Bacteria

b) Turbidity b) Dissolved oxygen b) Fungi

c) Total solids c) Virus
c) Temperature
(TDS, TSS, VSS) d) Multicellular
organisms
e) Salinity
f) BOD
g) COD
h) pH
i) Total organic carbon
(TOC)
j) Ammoniacal nitrogen
 COLOR

 The color of a small water sample is caused by both

dissolved and particulate material in water.
>>> measured in Hazen Units (HU).

 Dissolved organic molecules = deeply colored

(e.g. : tannins can result in dark brown colors)

 Algae floating in the water ("particles") can impart a green

color.

 But in a lot of cases water is a clear to neutral color due

to a lack of pigments in the water. (e.g. the sea)
 COLOR

 The color of a water sample can be reported as:

a. Apparent color
b. True color

 Apparent color = color of the whole water sample.

 True color = color due to dissolved components.

 Testing for color can be a quick and easy test which often
reflects the amount of organic material in the water
(although certain inorganic components like iron or
manganese can also impart color).
 COLOR

 The presence of color in water does not necessarily

indicate that the water is not potable. Color-causing
substances such as tannins may be harmless.

 Color can’t be removed by typical water filters

>>> slow sand filters

“ Water treatment process ”
>>> the use of coagulants
 TURBIDITY

 Measure of the extent to which light is either absorbed or

scattered by suspended material in water. Caused by:-

a) Nature: surface run-off due to heavy rain or seasonal

biological activity
b) Pollution: effluents discharged to sewers or to the
surface water
 TURBIDITY

 Turbidity in lakes, reservoirs, and the ocean can be

measured using a Secchi disk.

 However, this cannot be used in shallow water where

the disk can still be seen on the bottom.
 TURBIDITY

Record the
measure of the
Black and white Until can no
Lowered in water transparency of
disk longer be seen
the water (Secchi
depth)

 The Secchi disk has the advantages of integrating

turbidity over depth (where variable turbidity layers
are present), being quick and easy to use, and
inexpensive.
 TEMPERATURE

 Lowland streams, known as "warmwater" streams,

are different from mountian or spring fed streams that
are normally cool.
 In a warmwater stream temperatures should not
exceed 89 degrees (Fahrenheit) / 31.67 ºC.
 Cold water streams should not exceed 68 degrees
(Fahrenheit) / 20 º C.
 Often summer head can cause fish kills in ponds because
high temperatures reduce available oxygen in the water.
 HARDNESS

 Hard water is a type of water that has high mineral

content .

 Hard water primarily consists of calcium (Ca2+), and

magnesium (Mg2+) metal cations, and sometimes
other dissolved compounds such as bicarbonates and
sulfates.

 Calcium usually enters the water as either calcium

carbonate (CaCO3), in the form of limestone and chalk, or
calcium sulfate (CaSO4), in the form of other mineral
deposits.
 HARDNESS

 The predominant source of magnesium is dolomite

(CaMg(CO3)2).

 Is expressed in mgCaCO3/L.

 Hard water is generally not harmful.

 Caused by divalent metal cations that can react with

certain anions present to form a precipitate.

 Principal cations (and major anions associate with them)

are: Ca2+ and (HCO3-); Mg2+ and (SO42-); Sr2+ and (Cl-);
Fe2+ and (NO32-) and finally Mn2+ and (SiO32-).
 HARDNESS

 Strontium, ferrous iron and manganese are usually found

in trace amounts in water : usually ignored in the
calculation of hardness.

 Total hardness = concentration of calcium and magnesium

only.
 HARDNESS

 Descriptions of hardness correspond roughly

with ranges of mineral concentrations:-
Soft: 0–20
mg/L

Moderately soft:
20–40 mg/L

Slightly hard: 40–60

mg/L

Moderately hard: 60–80 mg/L

Hard: 80–120 mg/L

Very Hard >120 mg/L

 CALCULATION

 Hardness (mg CaCO3/l)

= Ion (mg/l) x Equivalent weight of CaCO3

Equivalent weight of ion
 CALCULATION

 A water sample containing 12mg/l of

Mg2+ and 84 mg/l of Ca2+, where the
equivalent weights of CaCO3, Mg2+
and Ca2+ are 50, 12.16 and 20.04
respectively. Calculate the hardness
of the water sample.
 CALCULATION

 Hardness = 12 x 50 / 12.16 + 84 x 50 / 20.04

= 259 mg CaCO3/l
 CALCULATION

 A water sample containing 15

ppm of Mg2+ and 20 ppm of
Ca2+ where the equivalent
weight of CaCO3, Ca2+ and Mg2+
are 100.09, 40.08 and 24.31.
Calculate the water hardness of
this water sample.
 CALCULATION

 Hardness,

=(15 x 100.09 / 24.31) + (20 x 100.09 / 40.08)

= 111.71 mgCaCO3 / L

>>>The water sample is HARD!!

 DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO)

 Dissolved oxygen is a measurement of the amount of

gaseous oxygen dissolved into the water or aqueous
solution.

 DO is typically expressed in units of milligrams per litre

(mg/L), percent saturation or parts per million
(ppm).

 Solubility of oxygen depends on:-

a) Temperature
b) Pressure
c) The concentration of dissolved minerals in the
water
 DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO)

Temperature (°C) DO (mg/l)

 Fresh water at 1 atm
at 20ºC contains 9.08 20 9.1
g of O2m-3 and as the 21 8.9
temperature 22 8.7
increases the 23 8.6
saturation 24 8.4
concentration (the 25 8.2
amount of oxygen 26 8.1
that can dissolved in 27 8.0
water) decreases 28 7.8
29 7.7
30 7.5
Variation in the DO with temperature at 1 atm
 DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO)

 An increase in the concentration of dissolved salts lessens

the saturation concentration of oxygen.

>>> Explains why sea water has lower saturation

concentration than freshwater at the same
temperature and pressure.

 A decrease in atm pressure causes a decrease in oxygen

saturation

>>> Streams at high altitude have less oxygen at

a certain temperature than lowland streams.
 DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO)

 Thereare many different sources of dissolved

oxygen, however there are two major sources :-

MAJOR SOURCES OF DO

Atmospheric aeration Photosynthesis

Where organisms such as algae and

Where oxygen is transported from
aquatic plants covert CO2 to organic
the air into the water at the air-water
matter, producing oxygen as a by-product
interface
of the reaction
 DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO)

PROCESSES THAT DEPLETE THE LEVEL OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN.

Decomposition of organics
• Bacteria and fungi use oxygen while they decompose biodegradable
organics in the water.

Sediment oxygen demand (SOD)

• Oxygen is used up by the uppermost level of sediment in the
stream/river/lake bed.

Nitrification
• Oxygen is used up during the oxidation of ammonia and organic
nitrogen to nitrates.

Respiration
• Algae and aquatic vascular plants use oxygen during the night to
sustain themselves.
 DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO)

 Dissolved oxygen is a commonly

measured in surface waters; in
the interest of ecosystem health.
 There are a variety of method and
probe available for DO
measurements.

>>>Azide-winkler titration method

>>>probe: YSI Multiparameter
System.
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND(BOD)

 BOD = rate of dissolved oxygen used by

bacteria/biological organisms in a body of
water breakdown OM.

 3 important factors influences BOD:

1. Temperature – biological activity influenced by temp
2. Time – rate of oxidation increases with time
3. Light – aquatic organisms need light and oxygen for their
activity.
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND(BOD)

Reasons for BOD test

Determine the approximate quantity of oxygen that
will be required to biologically stabilize the organic
matter present

To determine the size of waste-treatment facilities

To measure the efficiency of some treatment

processes

To determine compliance with wastewater discharge

permits.
• BOD test will continue to be used for some time, it
is important to know the details of the test and its
limitations.
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND(BOD)

Basic for BOD test

 If sufficient oxygen available, the aerobic biological
decomposition of an organic waste will continue until all of
the waste is consumed. Activities occur :
1. Oxidation  a portion of the waste is oxidized to end
products to obtain energy for cell maintenance and the
synthesis of new cell tissue.
2. Synthesis  some of the waste is converted
simultaneously into new cell tissue using part of the
energy released during oxidation.
3. Endogeneous respiration  when the organic
matter is used up, the new cells begin to consume their
own cell tissue to obtain energy for cell maintenance.
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND(BOD)

 Organic waste = COHNS (which represents the elements

carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen)
 C5H7NO2 = cell tissue

 the three processes are defined by the following generalized

chemical reactions:-
1. Oxidation:
1. COHNS + O2 + bacteria → CO2 + H2O + NH3 + other end
products + energy
2. Synthesis:
1. COHNS + O2 + bacteria + energy → C5H7O2N (New cell
tissue)
3. Endogeneous respiration:
1. C5H7O2N + 5O2 → 5CO2 + NH3 + 2H2O
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND(BOD)

BOD test procedure

 BOD measures the rate of oxygen uptake by micro-
organisms in a sample of water at a temperature of 20°C
and over an elapsed period of 5 days in the dark.

>>> The test begun by measuring the initial DO at temp at

which they will be stored, usually 20°C

>>> Sample stored for 5 days at 20°C. At the end of 5th

day, the DO was then measured for each samples.
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND(BOD)

Dilution method
 To ensure that all other conditions are equal, a very small amount
of micro-organism seed is added to each sample being tested.
>>> seed = typically generated by diluting activated sludge with DI
water.

 The BOD test is carried out by diluting the sample with de-ionized
water with added nutrients, saturated with oxygen, inoculating it
with seeding microorganism, measuring the dissolved oxygen and
sealing the sample (to prevent further oxygen dissolving in).

 The sample is kept at 20 °C in the dark to prevent photosynthesis

(and thereby the addition of oxygen) for five days, and the dissolved
oxygen is measured again.

 The loss of dissolved oxygen (after corrections have been made) in

the sample = BOD5.
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND(BOD)

 BOD can be calculated using the following equation,

which considered both dilution as well as seeding
methods.

 BOD (mg/L) = [ I  F ]  [ I ' F ' ]( X / Y )]

D
I = initial DO of the bottle with sample and seeded
dilution water
F = final DO of the bottle with sample and seeded
dilution water
I’ = initial DO of seeded dilution water
F’ = final DO of seeded dilution water
X = mL of seeded dilution water in the BOD bottle
Y = total mL in the bottle
D = dilution of the sample
 CALCULATION

Given:-
Initial DO at saturation 8.8 mg/L
Final DO of seeded dilution water is 7.6mg/L
Final DO of bottle with sample and seeded dilution water is
1.6 mg/L
Volume of BOD bottle is 300 mL
Dilution is 1:30, with seeded water.

Calculate the BOD5 of a water sample.

 CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND(COD)

 Commonly used to indirectly measure the amount of

organic compounds in water.
 Most applications of COD determine the amount of
organic pollutants found in surface water (e.g. lakes and
rivers), making COD a useful measure of water quality.
 It is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L), which
indicates the mass of oxygen consumed per liter of
solution.
 Older references may express the units as parts per
million (ppm).
 CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND(COD)

 The following formula is used to calculate COD:

 where
b is the volume of FAS used in the blank sample
s is the volume of FAS in the original sample
n is the normality of FAS.

Note: FAS : ferrous ammonium sulfate

 CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND(COD)

 The COD can also be estimated from the concentration of

oxidizable compound in the sample, based on its
stoichiometric reaction with oxygen to yield CO2
(assume all C goes to CO2), H2O (assume all H goes
to H2O), and NH3 (assume all N goes to NH3) using
the following formula:

COD = (C/FW)(RMO)(32)
Where ,
C = Concentration of oxidizable compound in the sample,
FW = Formula weight of the oxidizable compound in the sample,
RMO = Ratio of the # of moles of oxygen to # of moles of oxidizable
compound in their reaction to CO2, water, and ammonia.
CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND(COD)

 For example, if a sample has 500 ppm of phenol:

C6H5OH + 7O2 → 6CO2 + 3H2O

COD = (C/FW)(RMO)(32)

= (500/94)(7)(32) = 1191 wppm

 SALINITY

 Salinity is the saltiness or dissolved salt content of a

body of water.

Water salinity based on dissolved salts in parts per

thousand (ppt)
Freshwater Brackish Saline Brine
water water
< 0.5 0.5 - 35 35 - 50 > 50
 TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON (TOC)

 Total organic carbon (TOC) is the amount of carbon

bound in an organic compound.

>>> Often used as a non-specific indicator of

water quality or cleanliness of pharmaceutical
manufacturing equipment.

 A typical analysis for TOC measures both the total

carbon present as well as the inorganic carbon (IC).
>>> TOC = Total C – IC
 TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON (TOC)

 Another common variant of TOC analysis involves

removing the IC portion first and then measuring the
leftover carbon.

HOW
>>This method involves purging an acidified sample with
carbon-free air or nitrogen prior to measurement
 non-purgeable organic carbon (NPOC)
 TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON (TOC)

 TOC analyzers measure total carbon. TOC analysis always

requires some accounting for the inorganic carbon that is
always present.
 One analysis technique involves a two-stage process
commonly referred to as TC-IC.
 It measures the amount of inorganic carbon (IC) evolved from
an acidified aliquot of a sample and also the amount of total
carbon (TC) present in the sample.
 TOC is calculated by subtraction of the IC value from the TC
the sample.
 Another variant employs acidification of the sample to evolve
carbon dioxide and measuring it as inorganic carbon (IC),
then oxidizing and measuring the remaining non-purgeable
organic carbon (NPOC).
 This is called TIC-NPOC analysis.
 TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON (TOC)

 A more common method directly

measures TOC in the sample by again
acidifying the sample it to a pH value of
two or less to release the IC gas but in
this case to the air not for measurement.
 Whether the analysis of TOC is by TC-IC
or NPOC methods, it may be broken into
three main stages:
 Acidification
 Oxidation
 Detection and Quantification
 The first stage is acidification of the
sample for the removal of the IC and POC
gases. The release of these gases to the
detector for measurement or to the air is
dependent upon which type of analysis is
of interest, the former for TC-IC and the
latter for TOC (NPOC).
Analyzer
TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON (TOC)
 pH

 The measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.

 It is formally a measure of the activity of dissolved

hydrogen ions (H+), but for very dilute solutions, the
molarity (molar concentration) of H+ may be used as
a substitute with little loss of accuracy.

 In solution, hydrogen ions occur as a number of

cations including hydronium ions (H3O+).
 pH

 At a give temperature, pH (or hydrogen ion

concentration) gives an indication of the acidic/
alkaline nature of the water
 Controlled by the dissolved chemical compounds
and the biochemical processes in water.
 Unpolluted water: pH controlled by the balance
between CO2, CO3 and HCO3- as well as natural
compounds such as humic and fulvic acids.
 Normally measured in the field using a meter and
an electrode with temperature compensation, as pH
is temperature dependent.
 pH

Explanation:-

 simpler terms, the number arises from a measure of the

activity of hydrogen ions or their equivalent in the solution.
 The pH scale is an inverse logarithmic representation of
hydrogen proton (H+) concentration.
 Unlike linear scales, which have a constant relationship
between the item being measured (H+ concentration in this
case) and the value reported, each individual pH unit is a
factor of 10 different than the next higher or lower unit.
 For example, a change in pH from 2 to 3 represents a 10-fold
decrease in H+ concentration, and a shift from 2 to 4
represents a one-hundred (10 × 10)-fold decrease in H+
concentration. The formula for calculating pH is:
 pH

 Under the Brønsted-Lowry theory, stronger or weaker acids

are a relative concept.
 But here we define a strong acid as a species which is a
much stronger acid than the hydronium (H3O+) ion.
 In that case the dissociation reaction (strictly
HX+H2O↔H3O++X− but simplified as HX↔H++X−) goes to
completion, i.e. no unreacted acid remains in solution.
 Dissolving the strong acid HCl in water can therefore be
expressed:
 HCl(aq) → H+ + Cl−
 This means that in a 0.01 mol/L solution of HCl it is
approximated that there is a concentration of 0.01 mol/L
dissolved hydrogen ions.
 From above, the pH is: pH = −log10 [H+]:
 pH = −log (0.01) ; which equals 2
 pH

 For weak acids, the dissociation reaction does not go to

completion.
 An equilibrium is reached between the hydrogen ions and the
conjugate base. The following shows the equilibrium reaction
between methanoic acid and its ions:
 HCOOH(aq) ⇌ H+ + HCOO−
 It is necessary to know the value of the equilibrium constant
of the reaction for each acid in order to calculate its pH. In
the context of pH, this is termed the acidity constant of the
acid but is worked out in the same way (see chemical
equilibrium):
 Ka = [hydrogen ions][acid ions] / [acid]
 For HCOOH, Ka = 1.6 × 10−4
 When calculating the pH of a weak acid, it is usually
assumed that the water does not provide any hydrogen ions.
This simplifies the calculation, and the concentration
provided by water, 1×10−7 mol/L, is usually insignificant.
 CALCULATION

Example:
A chemical analysis has revealed the following
data obtained from a water sample.
2.35 mg/L HNO3
4.10 mg/L H2SO4
0.55 mg/L HCl
Given molecular weight of ions:
H = 1.0079, N= 14.0067, O = 15.994, S=32.06, Cl
= 35.45,
Calculate the pH of the water sample.
 CALCULATION

A chemical analysis has revealed the following data

obtained from a water sample.

1.56 mg/L HNO3

1.10 mg/L H2SO4
0.35 mg/L HCl
Given molecular weight of ions:
H = 1.0079, N= 14.0067, O = 15.994, S=32.06, Cl = 35.45,
Calculate the pH of the water sample.
 CALCULATION

Results from a water analysis revealed the data as

below.
4.35 mg/L HNO3
2.10 mg/L H2SO4
Given molecular weight of ions:
H = 1.0079, N= 14.0067, O = 15.994, S=32.06, Cl =
35.45

Calculate the pH of the water sample.

 AMMONIACAL NITROGEN

 Extremely soluble in water, reacting with water

to produce ammonium hydroxide and one of the
transient constituents in water as it is part of the
nitrogen cycle, which is influenced by biological
activity.
 The total nitrogen (TKN) content amounts to
about 15% to 20% of the BOD5 in domestic
effluent.
 AMMONIACAL NITROGEN

There are various sources of ammonia in rivers as follows:-

Untreated sewage from

poultry farms, reverine
Fertilizers for land and Uncontrolled landfill
squatters, septic tanks,
agricultural leachate and land
factories, makeshift
developments development
and toilets at
construction sites

Wastewater and toxic Oil, sullage

Wastewater discharges
chemicals discharges (wastewater) from
from domestic,
from different types of bathrooms and
commercial,
industries surface kitchens municipal
institutional and
runoff and washouts sewage treatment
similar facilities
resulting from rainfall plant effluent
AMMONIACAL NITROGEN
 AMMONIACAL NITROGEN

 Under anaerobic conditions:

>>>ammonia is oxidized to nitrite and further oxidized to nitrate
through nitrification process

 Under anoxic (without oxygen) conditions:

>>>nitrate formed is then converted to nitrogen gas with no oxygen
present through denitrification.

 There is no standard for ammoniacal nitrogen discharge. However,

on the average, the public sewage treatment facilities comply to the
stipulated Standard “A” and “B” requirements as follows:

Parameter Standard A (mg/L) Standard B (mg/L)

Ammoniacal Nitrogen 15 25
 TOTAL SOLIDS (TS)

 TS are the total of all solids in a water

sample.
 They include the total suspended solids,
total dissolved solids, and volatile solids.

>>> TS = sum of [SS + DS + VS]

 DISSOLVED SOLIDS (DS)

 Dissolved minerals determine the

chemical properties of water: hardness,
acidity, conductivity

 Which would affect the physical

properties :- color, taste and odor.
 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)

 TDS = combined content of all inorganic and organic

substances contained in a liquid which are present in a
molecular, ionized or micro-granular (colloidal sol)
suspended form.
 Generally the operational definition is that the solids
must be small enough to survive filtration through a
sieve size of two micrometres.
 Total dissolved solids are normally only discussed for
freshwater systems, since salinity comprises some of the
ions constituting the definition of TDS.
 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)

 The principal application of TDS is in the study of

water quality for streams, rivers and lakes,
although TDS is generally considered not as a
primary pollutant (e.g. it is not deemed to be
associated with health effects), but it is rather
used as an indication of aesthetic characteristics
of drinking water and as an aggregate indicator of
presence of a broad array of chemical
contaminants.
 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)

Stormwater runoff and

runoff from snowy
climates where road de-
icing salts are applied.

Agricultural runoff,
leaching of soil
contamination and
Pesticides arising
point source water SOURCES from surface
pollution discharge
from industrial or OF TDS runoff
sewage treatment
plants.

Weathering and
dissolution of rocks and
soils.
 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)

 The two principal methods of measuring total dissolved

solids are gravimetry and electrical conductivity.
 Gravimetric methods are the most accurate and
involve evaporating the liquid solvent to leave a residue
which can subsequently be weighed with a precision
analytical balance (normally capable of .0001 gram
accuracy).
 Electrical conductivity of water is directly related to the
concentration of dissolved ionized solids in the water.
Ions from the dissolved solids in water create the ability
for that water to conduct an electrical current, which can
be measured using a conventional conductivity meter or
TDS meter.
 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)

 Total dissolved solids (TDS)

 Expressed in mg/L
 Can be calculated by multiplying the conductance by a
specific factor (0.55-0.75)
 Factor increases with the increase in sulphate
concentration
 Has to be determined for specific water bodies but
once calculated it remains stable

 Water can be classified by the amount of TDS per litre:

 fresh water < 1500 mg/L TDS < brackish water < 5000
mg/L TDS < saline water.
 SUSPENDED SOLIDS (SS)

 Insoluble or soluble particles that are

 too large to dissolve
 Too small to settle out of suspension under turbulence
and temperature
 Consist of silt, clay, fine particles of organic and
inorganic matter, soluble organic compounds, planktons
and other microorganisms.
 Vary in size from 10nm to 0.1mm in diameter.
 Practical: what’s left on a 0.45µm filter paper.
 SUSPENDED SOLIDS (SS)

 Residues after evaporation at 103˚C – total solids

 Total solids can be divided into total dissolved solids
(TDS) and Total Suspended Solid (TSS)
 SS are separated from dissolved solids by filtering the
water through a filter paper.
 Suspended retained in paper, dissolved passes through.
 If the initial dry weight of paper is known, then the
remaining SS weight can be calculated, expressed in
mg/L.
 TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS (TSS)

 Total suspended solids is a water quality

measurement usually abbreviated TSS.
 TSS are the amount of filterable solids in a water
sample.
 Samples are filtered through a glass fiber filter.
 The filters are dried and weighed to determine the
amount of total suspended solids in mg/l of sample.
 VOLATILE SOLIDS (VS)

 Volatile solids are those solids lost on ignition

(heating to 550 degrees C.)
 They are useful to the treatment plant operator because
they give a rough approximation of the amount of
organic matter present in the solid fraction of
wastewater, activated sludge and industrial wastes.
TOTAL, FIXED AND VOLATILE SOLIDS

 Solids that are volatile at high temperature (550˚C) –

volatile solids
 Useful to treatment plants operator as they give rough
approximation of the amount of organic matter present
in the solid fraction of wastewater, activated sludge
and industrial wastes.
 Solids that are not volatile = fixed solids
 Total of volatile and fixed solids = Total solids
 CALCULATION

 Weight of dish = 48.6212 g

 100 mL sample placed in dish and
evaporated. Weight of dish and dry
solid = 48.6832 g.
 The dish is the placed in a 550˚C
furnace and then cooled. Obtained
weight = 48.6701g
Q : Find the total solids, fixed and
volatile solids
 CALCULATION

 Total solid :-
= [(weight dish and solids) – (weight of dish)] / sample
vol.)
= 6.2 x 10-2 mg/L

 Volatile solids :-
= [(weight dish and solids) – (weight of dish in furnace
and cooled)] / sample volume
= 1.31 x 10-2 mg/L

 Fixed solids :-
= Total solids – volatile solids
= 4.89 x 10-2 mg/L
 CALCULATION

A water sample analysis for solids gives results as

below:
Weight of dish = 44.9812 g
250 ml sample placed in dish and evaporated.
Weight of dish and dry solids = 46.5832 g
Weight of dish that has been placed in a 550˚C
furnace and cooled = 45.1234 g

Calculate the total solids, fixed and volatile solids

based on the above water analysis.
 CALCULATION

A water sample analysis for solids gives results as

below:
Weight of dish = 45.6213 g
200 ml sample placed in dish and evaporated.
Weight of dish and dry solids = 46.5832 g
Weight of dish that has been placed in a 550˚C
furnace and cooled = 45.7896 g

Calculate the total solids, fixed and volatile solids

based on the above water analysis.
 FUNGI

BIOLOGICAL
BACTERIA VIRUS
CHARACTERISTICS

MULTICELLULAR
ORGANISM
 BACTERIA

 Testing a water supply for specific disease-causing

organisms is expensive.
 Also, if the water supply is being contaminated by
human wastes, but the disease organism is not present
the day a sample is taken, the risk of future exposure to
the illness is still present.
 Instead, water supplies are tested for an indicator of
human or animal waste -- coliform bacteria.
 General coliforms, E. Coli, and Enterococcus bacteria
are the "indicator" organisms generally measured to
assess microbiological quality of water.
 Fecal coliforms, particularly E. coli, indicate that there
are mammal or bird feces in the water.
 BACTERIA

 Enterococcus bacteria also indicate that there feces from

warm blooded animals in the water.
 Enterococcus are a type of fecal streptococci.
 They are another valuable indicator for determining the
amount of fecal contamination of water.
 Another type of bacteria = iron bacteria = major nuisance
in many well water supplies.
 This naturally occurring bacteria does not cause disease,
but does form a reddish-brown slime that coats the inside
of pipes, fouls pumps and clogs waters.
 FUNGI

 Fungi are natural inhabitants of soil and water and some

species may behave as pathogens or opportunistic
pathogens in man.
 Enteric viruses cannot multiply in the environment, but
they can survive longer in water than most intestinal
bacteria and are more infectious and resistant to
disinfection than most other microorganisms.
 Fungal pathogens as agents of variety of infections are
part of this trend and are found much more frequently as
the cause of infections in immunocompromised patients.

Example: Norwalk, Hepatitis A

 MULTICELLULAR ORGANISM

 Giardia Lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum are

protozoan parasites, infecting the digestive tract of man
and other warm blooded animals.

 It has been demonstrated that semi-aquatic mammals

can serve as a zoonotic host, transmitting the disease to
humans who consume contaminated water.

 Research has also shown that both Giardia and

Cryptosporidium are highly resistant to chlorine, a
commonly used water disinfectant.

 Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium = difficult to remove

through filtration.
Giardia lamblia
DOE – WQI CALCULATION
DOE – WQI CALCULATION
 DOE – WQI CALCULATION

WQI = 0.22 SIDO + 0.19

SIBOD + 0.16 SICOD + 0.15
SIAN + 0.16 SISS + 0.12
SIpH
DOE – WQI CALCULATION
Sub Index
 DOE – WQI CALCULATION

Class/ I II III IV V
paramete
r
BOD <1 1-3 3-6 6-12 >12
COD <10 10-25 25-50 50-100 >100
NH3N <0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.9 0.9-2.7 >2.7
DO >7 5-7 3-5 1-3 <1
pH >7 6-7 5-6 <5 >5
SS <25 25-50 50-150 150-300 >300
WQI > 92.7 76.5-92.7 51.9-76.5 31.0-51.9 <31.0
 CALCULATION

Data obtained for river A :-

pH = 7.36
DO (mg/L) = 5.13
DO (% saturation) = 67.3
Turbidity (NTU) = 19.93
BOD (mg/L) = 0.78
COD (mg/L) = 4.33
NH3-N (mg/L) = 0.06
TSS (mg/L) = 22.26

a. Calculate WQI
b. Classify river A
 CALCULATION

Data obtained for river z :-

pH = 6.13
DO (mg/L) = 4.03
DO (% saturation) = 87.4
Turbidity (NTU) = 44.8
BOD (mg/L) = 2.44
COD (mg/L) = 16.0
NH3-N (mg/L) = 3.70
TSS (mg/L) = 38.00

a. Calculate WQI
b. Classify river z