Wireless & Mobile Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Transmission

Wireless & Mobile Communications
Chapter 2: Wireless Transmission

 Frequencies
 Signals
 Antennas
 Signal propagation
 Multiplexing
 Spread spectrum
 Modulation
 Cellular systems
Spectrum Allocation
twisted coax cable optical transmission

pair
1 Mm 10 km 100 m 1m 10 mm 100 m 1 m
300 Hz 30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 3 THz 300 THz
VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared visible light UV
VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Frequency

LF = Low Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency
HF = High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light
VHF = Very High Frequency
Relationship between frequency ‘f’ and wave length ‘’ :

 = c/f
where c is the speed of light  3x108m/s
ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.2

Frequencies Allocated for Mobile Communication
 VHF & UHF ranges for mobile radio

 allows for simple, small antennas for cars
 deterministic propagation characteristics
 less subject to weather conditions –> more reliable connections
 SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite
communication
 small antennas with directed transmission
 large bandwidths available
 Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF spectrum
 some systems planned up to EHF
 limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules
weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy rainfall, etc.

Allocated Frequencies
 ITU-R holds auctions for new frequencies, manages

frequency bands worldwide for harmonious usage (WRC -
World Radio Conferences)
Europe USA Japan
Mobile NMT 453-457MHz, AMPS, TDMA, CDMA PDC

phones 463-467ÊMHz; 824-849ÊMHz, 810-826ÊMHz,
GSM 890-915ÊMHz, 869-894ÊMHz; 940-956ÊMHz;
935-960ÊMHz; TDMA, CDMA, GSM 1429-1465ÊMHz,
1710-1785ÊMHz, 1850-1910ÊMHz, 1477-1513ÊMHz
1805-1880ÊMHz 1930-1990ÊMHz;
Cordless CT1+ 885-887ÊMHz, PACS 1850-1910ÊMHz, PHS
telephones 930-932ÊMHz; 1930-1990ÊMHz 1895-1918ÊMHz
CT2 PACS-UB 1910-1930ÊMHz JCT
864-868ÊMHz 254-380ÊMHz
DECT
1880-1900ÊMHz
Wireless IEEE 802.11 IEEE 802.11 IEEE 802.11
LANs 2400-2483ÊMHz 2400-2483ÊMHz 2471-2497ÊMHz
HIPERLAN 1
5176-5270ÊMHz

Signals I
 physical representation of data

 function of time and location
 signal parameters: parameters representing the value of
data
 classification
 continuous time/discrete time
 continuous values/discrete values
 analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
 digital signal = discrete time and discrete values
 signal parameters of periodic signals:
period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift 
 sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier:
s(t) = At sin(2  ft t + t)

Fourier Representation of Periodic Signals
 
1
g (t )  c   an sin( 2nft)   bn cos( 2nft)
2 n 1 n 1
1 1
0 0
t t
ideal periodic signal real composition
(based on harmonics)

Signals II
 Different representations of signals
 amplitude (amplitude domain)
 frequency spectrum (frequency domain)
 phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase  in polar
coordinates)
A [V] A [V] Q = M sin 
t[s] 
I= M cos 
 f [Hz]
 Composite signals mapped into frequency domain using
Fourier transformation
 Digital signals need
 infinite frequencies for perfect representation
 modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (->analog
signal!)

Antennas
 Antennas are used to radiate and receive EM waves (energy)
 Antennas link this energy between the ether and a device
such as a transmission line (e.g., coaxial cable)
 Antennas consist of one or several radiating elements
through which an electric current circulates
 Types of antennas:
 omnidirectional
 directional
 phased arrays
 adaptive
 optimal
 Principal characteristics used to characterize an antenna are:
 radiation pattern
 directivity
 gain
 efficiency

Isotropic Antennas
 Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three

dimensional) - only a theoretical reference antenna
 Real antennas always have directive effects (vertical and/or
horizontal)
 Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an
antenna
y z
ideal
isotropic
x
radiator

Omnidirectional Antennas: simple dipoles
 Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles

with lengths /4, or Hertzian dipole: /2 (2 dipoles)
 shape/size of antenna proportional to wavelength
/4 /2
 Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

y y z
simple
x z x dipole
side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)
 Gain: ratio of the maximum power in the direction of the

main lobe to the power of an isotropic radiator (with the
same average power)

Directional Antennas
 Often used for microwave connections (directed point to

point transmission) or base stations for mobile phones
(e.g., radio coverage of a valley or sectors for frequency
reuse)
y y z
directed
x z x antenna
side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)
z
z
x
sectorized
x antenna
top view, 3 sector top view, 6 sector

Array Antennas
 Grouping of 2 or more antennas to obtain radiating

characteristics that cannot be obtained from a single
element
 Antenna diversity
 switched diversity, selection diversity
receiver chooses antenna with largest output
 diversity combining
combine output power to produce gain
cophasing needed to avoid cancellation
/2 /2
/4 /2 /4 /2
+
+
ground plane

Signal Propagation Ranges
 Transmission range
 communication possible
 low error rate
 Detection range
 detection of the signal
possible
sender
 no communication
possible, high error rate
transmission
 Interference range
distance
 signal may not be
detection
detected
 signal adds to the interference
background noise

Signal Propagation I
 Radio wave propagation is affected by the following

mechanisms:
 reflection at large obstacles
 scattering at small obstacles
 diffraction at edges
scattering diffraction
reflection

Signal Propagation II
 The signal is also subject to degradation resulting from

propagation in the mobile radio environment. The principal
phenomena are:
 pathloss due to distance covered by radio signal (frequency
dependent, less at low frequencies)
 fading (frequency dependent, related to multipath propagation)
 shadowing induced by obstacles in the path between the
transmitted and the receiver
shadowing

Signal Propagation III
 Interference from other sources and noise will also impact signal
behavior:
 co-channel (mobile users in adjacent cells using same frequency) and
adjacent (mobile users using frequencies adjacent to
transmission/reception frequency) channel interference
 ambient noise from the radio transmitter components or other
electronic devices,
 Propagation characteristics differ with the environment through
and over which radio waves travel. Several types of environments
can be identified (dense urban, urban, suburban and rural) and are
classified according to the following parameters:
 terrain morphology
 vegetation density
 buildings: density and height
 open areas
 water surfaces

Pathloss I
 Free-space pathloss:
To define free-space propagation, consider an isotropic source
consisting of a transmitter with a power Pt W. At a distance ‘d’
from this source, the power transmitted is spread uniformly on
the surface of a sphere of radius ‘d’. The power density at the
distance ‘d’ is then as follows:
Sr = Pt/4d2
 The power received by an antenna at a distance ‘d’ from the

transmitter is then equal to:
Pr = PtAe/4d2
where A is the effective area of the antenna.
e

Pathloss II
 Noting that Ae = Gr/(4/2)

where Gr is the gain of the receiver
 And if we replace the isotropic source by a transmitting
antenna with a gain Gt the power received at a distance ‘d’ of
the transmitter by a receiving antenna of gain Gr becomes:
Pr = PtGrGt/[4(d/)]2
 In decibels the propagation pathloss (PL) is given by:
PL(db) = -10log10(Pr/Pt) = -10log10(GrGt/[4(d/)]2)
 This is for the ideal case and can only be applied sensibly to
satellite systems and short range LOS propagation.

Multipath Propagation I
 Signal can take many different paths between sender and

receiver due to reflection, scattering, diffraction
signal at sender
signal at receiver
 Positive effects of multipath:
 enables communication even when transmitter and receiver
are not in LOS conditions - allows radio waves effectively to
go through obstacles by getting around them thereby
increasing the radio coverage area

Multipath Propagation II
 Negative effects of multipath:

 Time dispersion or delay spread: signal is dispersed over time due
signals coming over different paths of different lengths
 Causes interference with “neighboring” symbols, this is referred
to as Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
multipath spread (in secs) = (longest1 – shortest2)/c
For a 5s symbol duration a 1s delay spread means about a 20%
intersymbol overlap.
 The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted (due to
reflections)
 Distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts,
this is referred to as Rayleigh fading, due to the distribution of the fades.
It creates fast fluctuations of the received signal (fast fading).
 Random frequency modulation due to Doppler shifts on the different
paths. Doppler shift is caused by the relative velocity of the receiver to
the transmitter, leads to a frequency variation of the received signal.

Effects of Mobility
 Channel characteristics change over time and location

 signal paths change
 different delay variations of different signal parts
 different phases of signal parts
 quick changes in the power received (short term fading)
 Additional changes in power long term

fading
 distance to sender
 obstacles further away
 slow changes in the average power
received (long term fading)
t
short term fading

Multiplexing Techniques
 Multiplexing techniques are used to allow many users to

share a common transmission resource. In our case the
users are mobile and the transmission resource is the radio
spectrum. Sharing a common resource requires an access
mechanism that will control the multiplexing mechanism.
 As in wireline systems, it is desirable to allow the
simultaneous transmission of information between two
users engaged in a connection. This is called duplexing.
 Two types of duplexing exist:
 Frequency division duplexing (FDD), whereby two frequency
channels are assigned to a connection, one channel for each
direction of transmission.
 Time division duplexing (TDD), whereby two time slots (closely
placed in time for duplex effect) are assigned to a connection,
one slot for each direction of transmission.

Multiplexing
channels ki
 Multiplexing in 3 dimensions
 time (t) (TDM) k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
 frequency (f) (FDM)

c
 code (c) (CDM)
t c
t
 Goal: multiple use
s1
of a shared medium f
s2
f
c
t
s3
f

Narrowband versus Wideband
 These multiple access schemes can be grouped into two

categories:
 Narrowband systems - the total spectrum is divided into a
large number of narrow radio bands that are shared.
 Wideband systems - the total spectrum is used by each mobile
unit for both directions of transmission. Only applicable for
TDM and CDM.

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands

 A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time –
orthogonal system
 Advantages:
 no dynamic coordination
necessary, i.e., sync. and k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
framing
c
 works also for analog signals
 low bit rates – cheaper, f
delay spread
 Disadvantages:
 waste of bandwidth
if the traffic is
distributed unevenly
 inflexible
 guard bands t
 narrow filters

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
 A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of

time – orthogonal system
 Advantages:
 only one carrier in the
medium at any time
 throughput high - supports bursts
 flexible – multiple slots
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
 no guard bands ?!
 Disadvantages: c
 Framing and precise f

synchronization
necessary
 high bit rates
at each
Tx/Rx t

Hybrid TDM/FDM
 Combination of both methods

 A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain
amount of time (slot).
 Example: GSM, hops from one band to another each time
slot
 Advantages:
 better protection against k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
tapping (hopping among
c
frequencies)
 protection against frequency f
selective interference
 Disadvantages:
 Framing and
sync. required
t

Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
 Each channel has a unique code

(not necessarily orthogonal) k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
 All channels use the same spectrum

at the same time c
 Advantages:
 bandwidth efficient
 no coordination and synchronization
necessary
 good protection against interference
f
and tapping
 Disadvantages:
 lower user data rates due to high
gains required to reduce
interference t
 more complex signal regeneration
ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.19.1

2.28
Issues with CDM
 CDM has a soft capacity. The more users the more codes that are
used. However as more codes are used the signal to interference
(S/I) ratio will drop and the bit error rate (BER) will go up for all
users.
 CDM requires tight power control as it suffers from far-near effect.
In other words, a user close to the base station transmitting with
the same power as a user farther away will drown the latter’s
signal. All signals must have more or less equal power at the
receiver.
 Rake receivers can be used to improve signal reception. Time
delayed versions (a chip or more delayed) of the signal (multipath
signals) can be collected and used to make bit level decisions.
 Soft handoffs can be used. Mobiles can switch base stations
without switching carriers. Two base stations receive the mobile
signal and the mobile is receiving from two base stations (one of
the rake receivers is used to listen to other signals).
 Burst transmission - reduces interference

Types of CDM I
 Two types exist:

 Direct Sequence CDM (DS-CDM)
spreads the narrowband user signal (Rbps) over the full spectrum by
multiplying it by a very wide bandwidth signal (W). This is done by
taking every bit in the user stream and replacing it with a pseudonoise
(PN) code (a long bit sequence called the chip rate). The codes are
orthogonal (or approx.. orthogonal).
This results in a processing gain G = W/R (chips/bit). The higher G the
better the system performance as the lower the interference. G2
indicates the number of possible codes. Not all of the codes are
orthogonal.
Frequency
Code
CDMA
Time

Types of CDM II
 Frequency hopping CDM (FH-CDM)

FH-CDM is based on a narrowband FDM system in which an individual
user’s transmission is spread out over a number of channels over time
(the channel choice is varied in a pseudorandom fashion). If the carrier
is changed every symbol then it is referred to as a fast FH system, if it
is changed every few symbols it is a slow FH system.
A A B B A
B A B A
B A B A
A B
B A B

Orthogonality and Codes
 An m-bit PN generator generates N=2m - 1 different codes.

 Out of these codes only ‘m’ codes are orthogonal -> zero
cross correlation.
 For example a 3 bit shift register circuit shown below
generates N=7 codes.
Mod2 Adder (1+0=1, 0+1=1, 0+0=0, 1+1=0)
+
1 2 3
Initial State: 1 1 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
1 1 0

Orthogonal Codes
 A pair of codes is said to be orthogonal if the cross correlation is
zero: Rxy(0) = 0 .
 For two m-bit codes: x1,x2,x3,...,xm and y1,y2,y3,...,ym:
For example: x = 0011 and y = 0110. Replace 0 with -1, 1 stays as is.
Then:
x = -1 -1 1 1
y = -1 1 1 -1
-----------------
Rxy(0) = 1 -1 +1 -1 = 0

Example of an Orthogonal Code: Walsh Codes
 In 1923 J.L. Walsh introduced a complete set of orthogonal

codes. To generate a Walsh code the following two steps
must be followed:
 Step 1: represent a NxN matrix as four quadrants (start off with
2x2)
 Step 2: make the first, second and third quadrants indentical
and invert the fourth
b b 1 1 0 0 Code 1
= or
b b’ 1 0 0 1 Code 2
2 codes: 11 and 10 2 codes: 00 and 01
bb bb 11 11 0 0 00 Code 1
b b’ b b’ 10 10 0 1 01 Code 2
= or
bb bb 11 00 0 0 11 Code 3
b b’ b b’ 10 01 0 1 10 Code 4

Modulation
 Digital modulation
 digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)
 ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter
 differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness
 Analog modulation
 shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio
carrier
 Motivation
 smaller antennas (e.g., /4)
 Frequency Division Multiplexing
 medium characteristics
 Basic schemes
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Phase Modulation (PM)

Modulation and Demodulation
analog
baseband
digital
signal
data digital analog
101101001 modulation modulation radio transmitter
radio
carrier
analog
baseband
digital
signal
analog synchronization data
demodulation decision 101101001 radio receiver
radio
carrier

Digital Modulation
 Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying

1 0 1
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
 very simple
 low bandwidth requirements t
 very susceptible to interference
1 0 1
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):
 needs larger bandwidth
t
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK): 1 0 1

 more complex
 robust against interference
t

Advanced Frequency Shift Keying
 bandwidth needed for FSK depends on the distance
between the carrier frequencies
 special pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts
 MSK (Minimum Shift Keying)
 bit separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each
bit is doubled
 depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher or lower
frequency, original or inverted is chosen
 the frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency of the
other
 even higher bandwidth efficiency using a Gaussian low-
pass filter  GMSK (Gaussian MSK), used in GSM

Example of MSK
1 0 1 1 0 1 0
data bit
even 0101
even bits odd 0011
odd bits signal hnnh

value - - ++
low h: high frequency

frequency n: low frequency
+: original signal
-: inverted signal
high
frequency
MSK
signal
t
No phase shifts!

Advanced Phase Shift Keying
 BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying): Q
 bit value 0: sine wave
 bit value 1: inverted sine wave
I
 very simple PSK 1 0
 low spectral efficiency
 robust, used e.g. in satellite systems 10 Q 11
 QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift
Keying):
I
 2 bits coded as one symbol
 symbol determines shift of sine wave
 needs less bandwidth compared to 00 01
BPSK A
 more complex
 Often also transmission of relative,
not absolute phase shift: DQPSK - t
Differential QPSK (IS-136, PACS,
PHS) 11 10 00 01

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): combines

amplitude and phase modulation
 it is possible to code n bits using one symbol
 2n discrete levels, n=2 identical to QPSK
 bit error rate increases with n, but less errors compared to
comparable PSK schemes
Q 0010
0001 Example: 16-QAM (4 bits = 1 symbol)
 0011 Symbols 0011 and 0001 have the
0000
same phase, but different amplitude.
I 0000 and 1000 have different phase,
1000 but same amplitude.
  used in standard 9600 bit/s
modems

Spread spectrum technology: CDM
 Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading

can wipe out narrow band signals for duration of the
interference
 Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad band
signal using a special code
 protection against narrow band interference
power interference spread power signal
signal
spread
detection at interference
receiver
f f
protection against narrowband interference
 Side effects:
 coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination
 tap-proof
 Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping

Effects of spreading and interference
P P
user signal
broadband interference
i) ii) narrowband interference
f f
sender
P P P
iii) iv) v)
f f f
receiver

2.43
Spreading and frequency selective fading
channel
quality
1 2 5 6
narrowband channels
3
4
frequency
narrow band guard space
signal
channel
quality
2
2 spread spectrum channels
2
2
2
1
spread frequency
spectrum

2.44
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) I
 XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (chipping

sequence)
 many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the
signal t b
 Advantages
user data
 reduces frequency selective
fading 0 1 XOR
 in cellular networks tc
base stations can use the chipping

sequence
same frequency range
01101010110101 =
several base stations can
detect and recover the signal resulting
soft handover signal
 Disadvantages 01101011001010
 precise power control necessary tb: bit period

tc: chip period

2.45
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) II
spread
spectrum transmit
user data signal signal
X modulator
chipping radio
sequence carrier
transmitter
correlator
lowpass sampled
received filtered products sums
signal signal data
demodulator X integrator decision
radio chipping
carrier sequence
receiver

2.46
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) I
 Discrete changes of carrier frequency

 sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo
random number sequence
 Two versions
 Fast Hopping:
several frequencies per user bit
 Slow Hopping:
several user bits per frequency
 Advantages
 frequency selective fading and interference limited to short
period
 simple implementation
 uses only small portion of spectrum at any time
 Disadvantages
 not as robust as DSSS
 simpler to detect

2.47
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) II
tb
user data
0 1 0 1 1 t
f
td
f3 slow
f2 hopping
(3 bits/hop)
f1
td t
f
f3 fast
f2 hopping
(3 hops/bit)
f1
tb: bit period td: dwell time

2.48
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) III
narrowband spread
signal transmit
user data signal
modulator modulator
frequency hopping
synthesizer sequence
transmitter
narrowband
received signal
signal data
demodulator demodulator
hopping frequency
sequence synthesizer
receiver

2.49
Concept of Cellular Communications
 In the late 60’s it was proposed to alleviate the problem of

spectrum congestion by restructuring the coverage area of mobile
radio systems.
 The cellular concept does not use broadcasting over large areas.
Instead smaller areas called cells are handled by less powerful
base stations that use less power for transmission. Now the
available spectrum can be re-used from one cell to another
thereby increasing the capacity of the system.
 However this did give rise to a new problem, as a mobile unit
moved it could potentially leave the coverage area (cell) of a base
station in which it established the call. This required complex
controls that enabled the handing over of a connection (called
handoff) to the new cell that the mobile unit moved into.
 In summary, the essential elements of a cellular system are:
 Low power transmitter and small coverage areas called cells
 Spectrum (frequency) re-use
 Handoff

Cell structure
 Implements space division multiplex: base station covers a

certain transmission area (cell)
 Mobile stations communicate only via the base station
 Advantages of cell structures:

 higher capacity, higher number of users
 less transmission power needed
 more robust, decentralized
 base station deals with interference, transmission area etc.
locally
 Problems:
 fixed network needed for the base stations
 handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
 interference with other cells
 Cell sizes from some 100 m in cities to, e.g., 35 km on the
country side (GSM) - even less for higher frequencies

2.51
Cellular Network
Other MSCs
(IS 41) F1,F2,..,F6
F7,F8,..,F12 F7,F8,..,F12
PSTN MSC
Base
Station
F1,F2,..,F6 Handoff
Cell
MSC: Mobile Switching Center (Theoretical)
PSTN: Public Switched Telephone Network
Practical Cell - coverage depends on antenna location and

height, transmitter power, terrain, foliage, buildings, etc.

Some Definitions
 Forward path or down link - from base station down to the mobile
 Reverse path or up link - from the mobile up to the base station
 The mobile unit - a portable voice and/or data comm. transceiver.
It has a 10 digit telephone number that is represented by a 34 bit
mobile identification number -> (215) 684-3201 is divided into two
parts: MIN1: 215 translated into 10bits and MIN2: 684-3201
translated into 24bits. In addition each mobile unit is also
permanently programmed at the factory with a 32 bit electronic
serial number (ESN) which guards against tampering.
 The cell - a geographical area covered by Radio Frequency (RF)
signals. It is essentially a radio communication center comprising
radios, antennas and supporting equipment to enable mobile to
land and land to mobile communication. Its shape and size
depend on the location, height , gain and directivity of the
antenna, the power of the transmitter, the terrain, obstacles such
as foliage, buildings, propagation paths, etc. It is a highly irregular
shape, its boundaries defined by received signal strength! But for
traffic engineering purposes and system planning and design a
hexagonal shape is used.

More definitions
 The base station (BS) - a transmitter and receiver that

relays signals (control and information (voice or data)) from
the mobile unit to the MSC and vice versa.
 The mobile switching center (MSC) - a switching center that
controls a cluster of cells. Base stations are connected to
the MSC via wireline links. The MSC is directly connected to
the PSTN and is responsible for all calls related to mobiles
located within its domain. MSCs intercommunicate using a
link protocol specified by IS (International Standard) 41.
This enables roaming of mobile units (i.e. obtaining service
outside of the home base). The MSC is also responsible for
billing, it keeps track of air time, errors, delays, blocking,
call dropping (due to handoff failure), etc. It is also
responsible for the handoff process, it keeps track of signal
strengths and will initiate a handoff when deemed
necessary (note to handoff or not to handoff is not a trivial
issue!)

The Basic Cellular Communication Protocol I
 Every mobile unit whether at home or roaming, has to

register with the MSC controlling the area it is in. If it does
not register then the MSC does not know of its existence
and will not be able to process any of its calls.
 The home location register (HLR) is used to keep
information regarding a mobile unit/user, it is a database for
storing and managing subscriber information. When
roaming, a mobile unit registers with a foreign MSC and
data from its HRL is relayed to the visitor location register
(VLR). The VLR is a dynamic database used to store
roaming mobile subscriber information. The HLR and VLR
communicate via the MSCs using IS 41.
 The cellular system uses out of band signalling. Most of the
control information is sent over different channels from the
user information (voice or data) channels. Inband signalling
is used for control during the connection (disconnect,
handoff, etc.)

The Basic Cellular Communication Protocol II
 A mobile unit when enabled (power on) scans the control

channels and tunes to the one with the strongest signal. The
control channels are known and carry signals pertaining to the
cell sites, e.g. transmission power to be used by the mobile unit in
a particular cell. This process is called initialization.
 If the mobile wants to initiate a call, it sends in a service request
on the reverse path control link. The service request contains the
destination phone number and identification information (MIN1,
MIN2, and ESN) of the source mobile unit to verify the originator.
 When the base station receives the request, it relays it to the MSC.
The MSC then checks to see it is it a number of another mobile or
of a fixed user. If the latter the call is forwarded to the PSTN. If the
former, it checks to see if the destination mobile unit is a
subscriber (local or visitor/roamer). If not it relays the call to the
PSTN to forward to the appropriate MSC.

The Basic Cellular Communication Protocol III
 If the destination is within its cluster it sends out a paging

message to all the base stations. Every base station then
relays this message by broadcasting it on its control
channel. If the destination mobile unit is enabled (power on)
it will detect this message and respond to the base station.
 The base station relays this response to the MSC. The MSC
then allocates channels to both the source mobile unit and
the destination mobile unit. The corresponding base
stations pass this information on to the respective mobile
units. The mobile units then tune to the correct channels
and the communication link is established.

Spectrum and Capacity Issues
 Spectrum is limited
Allocated Spectrum
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9
FDM
F1,F2,...F9: frequency channels

Frequency Re-use I
 To be able to increase the capacity of the system, frequencies must

be re-used in the cellular layout (unless we are using spread
spectrum techniques).
 Frequencies cannot be re-used in adjacent cells because of co-
channel interference. The cells using the same frequencies must be
dispersed across the cellular layout. The closer the spacing the
more efficient the scheme!
Fx:subset of
frequencies
used in a F2
cell
Cochannel
Interference
F1
F1 F2
Minimum
Re-use distance

Frequency Re-use II
 For an omni-directional antenna, with constant signal

power, each cell site coverage area would be circular
(barring any terrain irregularities or obstacles).
 To achieve full coverage without dead spots, a series of
regular polygons for cell sites are required.
 The hexagonal was chosen as it comes the closest to the
shape of a circle, and a hexagonal layout requires fewer
cells (when compared to triangles or rectangles, it has the
largest surface area given the same radius R) -> less cells.
 Goal is to find the minimum distance between cells using
same frequencies.

Frequency re-use distance I
i,j - integers -> intercell distance 60%

along cell centers i,j: multiples of 31/2R
i j
A D
A
R
D - min. dist. R: cell radius
D=31/2R[i2+j 2+ij]1/2 i,j are integers v R

R = radius of hexagonal u
(u,v)
1 3
300
D 2
31/2R 31/2R
R 1
(0,0)
u2-u1=3 1/2Ri
v2-v1=31/2 Rj

Frequency re-use distance II
 For two adjacent cells: D=31/2R

 The closest we can place the same frequencies is called the
first tier around the center cell (minimal re-use distance ->
lower -> more capacity!).
 For simplicity we only take the first tier of cells into account
for co-channel interference (i.e., we ignore 2nd, 3rd, etc.
tiers, cause much less interference, negligible!).
Original cell Cluster of “N” cells with
different frequencies
First tier of interferers
Second tier of interferers
They are all equidistant
away from each other (D)
Each cell has exactly six equidistant interfering cells

Frequency re-use distance III
Radius = D D
First Tier
(all use same
Radius frequencies as
center cell)
R
Cluster of “N” cells with
frequencies different
from center cell
(large hexagon)

Frequency re-use distance III
 Radius = dist. between two co-channel cells =

(3R2[i2+j2+ij])1/2 = D
 Since the area of a hexagon is proportional to the square of
the distance between its center and a vertex (i.e., its radius),
the area of the large hexagon is:
Alarge = k[Radius]2 = k[3R2[i2+j2+ij]]
where k is a constant.
 Similarly the area of each cell (i.e., small hexagon) is:
Asmall = k[R2]
 Comparing these expressions we find that:
Alarge/Asmall = 3[i2+j2+ij] = D2/R2

Frequency re-use distance IV
 From symmetry we can see that the large hexagon

encloses the center cluster of N cells plus 1/3 the number of
the cells associated with 6 other peripheral hexagons. Thus
the total number of cells enclosed by the first tier is:
N+6(1/3N) = 3N
 Since the area of a hexagon is proportional to the number
of cells contained within it:
Alarge/Asmall = 3N/1 = 3N
 Substituting we get:
3N = 3[i2+j2+ij] = D2/R2
 Or:
D/R = q =(3N)1/2
 “q” is referred to as the reuse ratio!

Co-channel Interference I
 The co-channel interference ratio S/I is given as:

S S --------
--- = ----------------
I Ni
  I k
k=1
S = desired signal power in a cell (note that many texts use “C”
instead of S), Ik = interference signal power from the kth cell, Ni =
number of interfering cells.
 If we only assume the first tier of interfering cells, then Ni=6,and
all cells interfere equally (they are all equidistant!).
 The signal power at any point is inversely proportional to the
inverse of the distance from the source raised to the g power.
(2<g<5)

Co-channel Interference II
 Ik is proportional to Dg , and S is proportional to Rg , where g

is the propagation path loss and is dependent upon terrain
environment. For cellular systems it is often taken as = 4.
 Therefore:
–g g
S--- = ----------------
R - = ---------------
1 - = q-----
I –g –g 6
6D 6 q
 The relationship between SNR (signal to noise ratio - Eb/No)

and S/I for cellular systems with Rayleigh fading channels:
SNR = S/I(db) – 9db.

For a given S/I how to get N
 Recall that: D/R = q =(3N)1/2

 An S/I = 18db (decibels=10logS/I) = 63.1, gives an
acceptable voice quality.
 Therefore q = [6x63.1]1/4 = 4.41 when g = 4
 Substituting for N we get N = (4.41)2/3 equals approx. 7
 This means that if we have 49 frequency channels available,
each cell gets 49/7 = 7 frequency channels.
 If we have 82 available then 82/7 = 11.714 -> which means
that 5 cells will have 12 and 2 cells will have 11!
 How does that translate to “i and j” for a cell layout?
N = [i2+j2+ij], find i,j that satisfy the equation!

Calculating i, j, and D from N
7 7
2 7 j
i 2
1 6 1
2
1 D
5 3
4 D = 4.41R
N=7 -> i=2, j=1
f2 f3 f7
f5 f2
f4 f6 f5
f1 f4
f3 f7 f1
f2 f3
f6 f5 f2

Frequency planning
 Frequency reuse only with a certain distance between the
base stations
 Standard model using 7 frequencies:
f3
f5 f2
f4 f6 f5
f1 f4
f3 f7 f1
f2
 Fixed frequency assignment:

 certain frequencies are assigned to a certain cell
 problem: different traffic load in different cells
 Dynamic frequency assignment:
 base station chooses frequencies depending on the
frequencies already used in neighbor cells
 more capacity in cells with more traffic
 assignment can also be based on interference measurements

2.70
Increasing Capacity
 We can see that by reducing the area of a cell we can

increase capacity as we will have more cells each with its
own set of frequencies.
 What is drawback of shrinking the size of the cells (cell
splitting)? Increase in the number of handoffs -> increased
load on the system! Also need more infrastrucutre -> base
stations (each cell needs a BS).
 An easier solution exists, sectorization. It does not reduce
handoffs, its advantage: it does not require more
infrastructure.

Sectorization I
 We can also increase the capacity by using sectors in cells.

 Directional antennas instead of being omnidirectional, will
only beam over a certain angle.
F1+F2+F3=Fa 120% F1+F2+F3+F4+F5+F6=Fa
60%
F1 F2
F1 F3
F3
F2 F4
F6
F5
3 sectors Fa: A cell’s set of frequencies 6 sectors
f3 f3 f3
f2 f2
f1 f1 f1 f2 f2 f2
f1 f f1 f f1 f
f3 f3 3 h 3 h 3
h1 2 h1 2
f2 f2 f2 g2 h3 g2 h3 g2
g1 g1 g1
f1 f1 g3 g3 g3
f3 f3 f3
3 cell cluster 3 cell cluster with 3 sectors

Sectorization II
 What does that mean?

 We can now assign frequency sets to sectors and decrease
the re-use distance or improve S/I ratio (i.e. signal quality).
 Question: By how much? Depends on number of sectors
(i.e., 60% or 120%).
“A”: set of frequencies in a sector
A A”
First Tier
A:Do not interfere with (all use same
“A”sector of center cell frequencies in
sectors as
A A”A’ A” center cell)
A’ A”:Cause Mobile to cell

A’ site interference
A’:Cause Cell site to
mobile interference

Other Capacity or Signal Improvement Tech.
 Dynamic channel allocation (DCA): allows cells to borrow

frequencies from other cells within the cluster if not used
by them. Can be used to alleviate hotspots. Another
implementation basically has all channels available to all
cells, they get allocated based upon demand.
 Power control: by reducing the transmitted power, the
battery life of a mobile can be extended. It also helps in
reducing -channel and adjacent channel interference.

Wireless & Mobile Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Transmission

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Wireless & Mobile Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Transmission

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Wireless & Mobile Communications

Chapter 2: Wireless Transmission

twisted coax cable optical transmission

VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared visible light UV

VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Frequency

Relationship between frequency ‘f’ and wave length ‘’ :

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.2

 VHF & UHF ranges for mobile radio

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.3

 ITU-R holds auctions for new frequencies, manages

Mobile NMT 453-457MHz, AMPS, TDMA, CDMA PDC

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.4

 physical representation of data

s(t) = At sin(2  ft t + t)

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.5

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.6

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.7

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.8

 Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.9

 Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles

 Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

 Gain: ratio of the maximum power in the direction of the

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.10

 Often used for microwave connections (directed point to

side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)

top view, 3 sector top view, 6 sector

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.11

 Grouping of 2 or more antennas to obtain radiating

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.12

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.13

 Radio wave propagation is affected by the following

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.14

 The signal is also subject to degradation resulting from

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.15

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.16

 The power received by an antenna at a distance ‘d’ from the

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.17

 Noting that Ae = Gr/(4/2)

 In decibels the propagation pathloss (PL) is given by:

PL(db) = -10log10(Pr/Pt) = -10log10(GrGt/[4(d/)]2)

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.18

 Signal can take many different paths between sender and

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.19

 Negative effects of multipath:

multipath spread (in secs) = (longest1 – shortest2)/c

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.20

 Channel characteristics change over time and location

 Additional changes in power long term

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.21

 Multiplexing techniques are used to allow many users to

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.22

 frequency (f) (FDM)

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.23

 These multiple access schemes can be grouped into two

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.24

 Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.25

 A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of

 Framing and precise f

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.26

 Combination of both methods

ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission Spring 2003 2.27