PHARMACOGNOSY LAB

AN INTRODUCTION
How to define a pharmaceutical plant
– derived drug from the botanical
point of view ?
– a botanical drug is a product that is
either:

1. Derived from a plant and transformed into a

drug by drying certain plant parts, or
sometimes the whole plant, or;
2. Obtained from a plant, but no longer retains
the structure of the plant or its organs and
contains a complex mixture of biogenic
compounds (e.g. fatty and essential oils, gums,
resins, balms)
• The large majority of botanical drugs in
current use are derived from leaves or aerial
parts.

• A plant-derived drug should be defined not

only in terms of the species from which it is
obtained but also the plant part that is used to
produce the dried product. Thus, a drug is
considered to be adulterated if the wrong
plant parts are included (e.g. aerial parts
instead of leaves).
Steps in the Preparation of Plant
for Commercial Market
1. Collection – when the part of the
plant that constitutes the drug is
highest in its content of active
constituents.
Steps in the Preparation of Plant
for Commercial Market
●Rules in the Collection●
Leaves – before they are fully expand.
Flower – as the flower are beginning to open.
Under ground organs – as the arterial part
die down.
Barks – after the period of damp weather.
Seeds – fully matured.
Fruits – before or after the ripening period.
Steps in the Preparation of Plant
for Commercial Market
Gums, gum resins – when dry
weather
Leaves, Flower & Fruits should
not be collected when covered
with dew or rain.
Never use plant part/samples
attacked by insects.
Steps in the Preparation of Plant
for Commercial Market
2. Harvesting – Hand Labor and
Mechanical Device
3. Drying – Removal of moisture, to ensure
good keeping qualities, prevent molding,
prevent the action of bacteria and
chemical or other possible changes,
facilitates grinding and milling.
Steps in the Preparation of Plant
for Commercial Market
Methods of Drying
• Natural • Artificial
– Air Drying – oven- 40°C to
– Sun Drying 60°C
– Shade Drying
Steps in the Preparation of Plant
for Commercial Market
Advantages of Artificial heat
More rapid
Helps the flower and leaves retain their
color and aromatic drugs their aroma

General Rule
Leaves, herbs & flowers 20-40c
Barks & roots 30-60C
Steps in the Preparation of Plant
for Commercial Market
4. Garbling – removal of extraneous matter
such as plant parts, dirt and added
adulterant.

5. Packaging, Storage and Preservation-

addition of few drops CHCl3 and CCl4,
Exposure to 65°C Fumigation with Methyl
bromide
Primary Factors for Deterioration
• Moisture – activated enzymes present in
the leaves and bring about decomposition
of the glycosides.
• Containerized shipment – due to
excessive condensation of moisture to the
inner metal walls.
• Increase temperature- lead to loss of
volatile constituents.
Primary Factors for Deterioration
• Direct sunlight – decomposition of certain
constituents.
• Oxygen – assists resinification of volatile
oils and rancidification of fixed oils.
 Methods of Extraction
• Maceration

• Infusion

• Digestion
 Methods of Extraction

Distillation

Decoction

Percolation Expression
 Solvents Commonly Used for
Extraction
Petroleum Ether - fats, fixed oils,
waxes, pigments, resins
Ether - alkaloids, resins, glycosides
Chloroform - same as Ether
95% alcohol - glycosides, tannins,
saponin, resin
 Solvents Commonly Used for
Extraction
80% alcohol - Same as 95% alcohol
preferred in phytochemical screening
Water - glycosides, sugar, salt, gum
mucin, protein
1% HCl - alkaloids, salt of veg. acid
5% NaOH - Pentosans and
hemicellulose
 Methods for Separation
1. Paper Chromatography - water
soluble constituents like
carbohydrates, amino acids.
 Methods for Separation
2. Thin layer Chromatography - lipid
soluble constituents like fats, fixed
oils, waxes, chlorophyll.
 Methods for Separation
3. Gas Liquid Chromatography -
volatile compounds like HC, terpenes
 Methods for Separation
4. High Pressure Liquid
Chromatography
Methods of Identification and
Evaluation
1. Organoleptic Test
- organs of sense-
color, odor, taste
texture.

2. Microscopic -
microscopic
characteristics.
Methods of Identification and
Evaluation
3. Biologic - animals, microorganism-
pharmacologic activity.
4. Chemical - color reaction; chemical
constant.
5. Physical - solubility, specific gravity,
optical rotation, refractive index,
congealing point, melting point.
Methods of Identification and
Evaluation
6. Instrumental
- UV-VIS Spectroscopy - plant pigments
- IR Spectroscopy - finger printing device
Methods of Identification and
Evaluation
- Mass Spectroscopy - molecular
weight
Methods of Identification and
Evaluation
- NMR Spectroscopy - structural
formula
 Classification of Drugs
• Morphology grouped
according to plant part
• Taxonomy natural
relationship/phylogeny
• Therapeutic applications- Window plants
pharmacological activity
• Chemical Constituents-
active/inert
Cactus group
 New Family Names
Old Family New Family Common
Name Name Family Name
Compositae Asteraceae
Asteraceae Daisy
Daisy Family
Cruciferae Brasicaceae Mustard
Mustard
Graminae Poaceae
Poaceae Grass
Grass Family
Labiatae Laminaceae Mint
Mint Family
Palmae Arecaceae
Arecaceae Palm Family
Palm
Umbelliferae Opiaceae
Opiaceae Parsley
Parsley
 Taxonomy
• It is the science of naming organisms
and their correct integration into the
existing system of nomenclature.
• The names of species are given in
binomial form: the first part of the
name indicates the wider taxonomic
group, the genus; the second part of
the name is the species.
 Papaver somniferum L.
• Species: somniferum, here meaning ‘sleep -
producing’
• Genus: Papaver (a group of species, in this
case poppies, which are closely related)
• Family: Papaveraceae (a group of genera
sharing certain traits)
• L.: indicates the botanist who provided the
first scientific description of the species
and who assigned the botanical name
 Morphology of Higher Plants
1. Flower
• It is the essential reproductive organ of a
plant.
• Two characteristics of a flower are
particularly noteworthy: the size and
the color
• Flowers are only a minor source of drugs
used in phytotherapy or pharmacy e.g.
chamomile.
Matricaria recutita L.
2. Fruit and seed
• The lower plants, such as algae, mosses and ferns, do
not produce seeds

Gymnosperm and Angiosperm

• Gymnosperm: they are characterized by seeds that

are not covered by a secondary outer protective layer,
but only by the testa – the seed’s outer layer
• Angiosperm: the seeds are covered with a
specialized organ (the carpels) which in turn develop
into the pericarp.
• Drugs from the fruit thus have to
be derived from an angiosperm
species

• Fruits and seeds have yielded

important phytotherapeutic
products, including:
 Fruit - Caraway, Carum carvi L.
(Umbelliferae)
 Seed - (white) mustard, Sinapis
alba L. (Brassicaceae)
3. Leaves
• The function of the leaves, as collectors of the sun’s
energy and its assimilation, results in their typical
general anatomy with a petiole (stem) and a lamina
(blade)
• A key characteristic of a species is the way in which
the leaves are arranged on the stem, they may be:
1. Alternate
2. Distichous
3. Opposite
4. Decussate
5. Whorled
• The form and size of leaves are
essential characteristics e.g. oval,
oblong, obovate, rounded, linear,
lanceolate, elliptic, spatulate, cordate,
hastate or tendril

• The margin of the leaf is another

characteristic feature e.g. entire,
serrate, dentate, sinuate, ciliate or
spinose
4. Bark

• The bark as an outer protective

layer frequently accumulates
biologically active substances e.g.
Red cinchona, Cinchona
succirubra L. (Rubiaceae)
• No stem-derived drug is
currently of major importance
5. Rhizome and root drugs
• Underground organs of only a
few species have yielded
pharmaceutically important
drugs e.g.
1. Sarsaparilla, Smilax regelii
(Smilacaceae)
2. Korean ginseng, Panax ginseng
(Araliaceae)
6. The bulbs and exudates
1. Garlic, Allium sativum L.
(Liliaceae)
2. Aloe vera L.
(Asphodelaceae)
 Preparing Specimen for Identification:

• Drying Plant Materials

• Packaging
• Plant Structure to Send – Whole plant is best
• Information about the Plant
• Nature of Plant – Tree, Shrub, Herb.
• Habitat – Wild, Roadside, Field
• Source of Plant – Town, Province
• Date of Collection
• Natural color of flowers or fruits
• Send Plant Sample to National Museum –
Botany Division
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