Pharmacognosy

It is an applied science that deals with biological, biochemical and

economic features of natural substances, their derivatives and
constituents.
Natural substances:
They are either whole animal or plant or their parts such as leaves,
barks, fruits etc. and fixed oils, reins, latex, exudates etc.
Habitat:
It is a region or area in which an animal or plant yielding the drugs
grows.
 Indigenous plants:
Indigenous plants are those plants those which grow in their native
countries.
Naturalized plants:
Naturalized plants are those which grow in region other than their native
homelands.
Inert constituents:
A crude drug contains number of different constituents some of which
are therapeutically inactive e.g. starch, chlorophyll, fibrous tissue in
animals or insects are termed as inert constituents.
Active constituents:
All these constituents having therapeutic or physiological activities are termed as
active constituent. It may be a mixture of two or more components and may be
present in traces.
Crude drugs: It is a natural substances which have been only collected and dried.
Advanced crude drug:
A crude drug which have not been improved in value or in its condition by
grinding, chipping, shredding, crushing, distilling, evaporation, extracting or
mixing with any synthetic or artificial substances except the treatment or
processes which are essential for its packing and preservation of decay and
deterioration.
Cultivation of medicinal plants
• For the production of therapeutically active agents, the medicinal plants
are cultivated. The reasons behind the cultivation is;
• Cultivation ensures the quality and purity of medicinal plants
• Collection of crude drugs from cultivation gives a better yield and
therapeutic activity
• It ensures regular supply of crude drugs.
• Cultivation of medicinal plants leads to the industrialization to a greater
extent.
• It permits the application of modern technological aspects such as;
polyploidy, hybridization etc.
Factors affecting cultivation
Plant growth and development and often nature and quantity of
secondary metabolites are effected by various factors such as;
Light
 Rainfall
 Temperature
 Altitude
 Nature of soil
For successful cultivation is it necessary condition of habitat of that plant
under which the plant flourishes and improve or replace those conditions
for cultivation.
Preparation of crude drugs for commercial
market
It includes three major processes;
1. Collection
2. Drying
3. Garbling
1. Collection:
It should be done in right season and at right age of the plant when they
have large amount of active constituents. Crude drugs should be
collected in humid season, they should not be having dewdrops. It
shouldn’t be infested or eaten by the insects. It can be done in any of the
following ways;
Preparation of crude drugs for commercial
market
a) The collection of the medicinal plant can be done from wild soured
by local natives, but collection from wild source is difficult, time
consuming and needs much labor. It often leads to collection or
incorporation of undesirable plants or plant parts.
b) Collection of medicinal plants can be done from cultivated source
by skilled and trained professionals. The picking may be done by
hand or by using any machinery. It is cost effective, but on the other
hand it has less chances of mix contamination due to accidental
incorporation and ignorance.
• Ontogenic effect:
• It is defined as the, effect of age of the plant on the secondary
metabolites (active constituents). Quality of the drug depends upon
the active principles.
• Examples:
• Rhubarb (Rheum officinale), Senna (Cassia angustifolia), Aloe (Aloe
vera), these all contain anthraquinone glycosides. If these drugs are
collected in winter there will be no active constituents. But if they are
collected in summer then the anthraquinols present in them by
oxidation converted to active principles anthraquinones.
 Datura stramonium contains a number of alkaloids e.g. hyoscine and
hyoscyamine. Their concentration falls from 80% (young seedlings) to
30% (mature plants).
In peppermint (Mentha piperata), the aroma in the leaves is due to
the volatile oil, menthol. In younger tissues pulegone and menthol is
predominant about 30%, while in older tissue pulegone is converted
into menthofuran and it converts further into menthol.
General rules of collection
There are certain general rules regarding the collection of different plant parts;
Leave crude drugs:
Leaves should be collected, when photosynthesis is active which is usually about the
time of flowering. When flowers are beginning to open but before maturing of fruit
and seeds.
Flower crude drugs:
Flowers should be collected just before they are fully exposed that is prior just before
the time of pollination.
Fruit crude drug:
They are collected either before or after ripening period that is when fully grown but
unripe. For example papain from Crica papaya. Similarly the crude drugs which are
collected after ripening are coriander, fennel etc.
General rules of collection
Bark crude drug:
Barks should be collected in spring season before the vegetative
season begin. These are usually collected after period of damp weather
because it facilitate the separation of bark from wood.
Roots and underground plant parts:
These should be collected in autumn season i.e. after the vegetative
process have been ceased. If roots are fleshy they will shrink and
become spongy after drying if collected during the growing season.
General rules of collection
• Seed crude drugs: They should be collected when fully matured or
ripened. If possible before fruits are opened.
• Unorganized plant parts: They should be collected in dry weather.
Care should be taken to get high quality drug that all vegetative debris
should be excluded.
2. Drying
• Drying of crude drug is very important. Crude drugs are dried because
moisture can cause microbial growth and also due to presence of
moisture the enzymatic activity is initiated. Some drugs require
immediate drying after collection otherwise the active constituents
loses their efficacy.
• Example: Digitalis (Foxglove) contain cardio-active glycosides. It is not
dried promptly the active principles are readily hydrolyzed by the
moisture.
Methods of drying
• There are two methods of drying that are commonly employed.
• Naturel drying: It includes the drying of crude drugs under sun or under
shade. As it is natural process therefore there is no use of machinery.
Similarly, it is economical cheaper, no skilled professionals are required for the
purpose. On the other hand it is time consuming. It can’t be done in winter
season, humid or rainy environment. Besides, temperature and air flow
cannot be controlled or monitored.
• Artificial drying: Various methods of drying are included in artificial drying
methods such as tray dryers, spray dryers, vacuum dryers etc. It is not a small
scale process. It requires machinery and skilled professionals. It is cost
effective and not even economical. Similarly thermolabile constituents loses
their activity but it is rapid and time saving.
Drying of crude drugs
• There are certain general rules regarding the drying of different plant
parts;
• Drying of leaves:
• Leaves contain more moisture content therefore it should be heated at
40 – 60 ̊ C provided active constituents are not destroyed. Fairly rapid
drying helps leaves to retain their color and aromatic drugs their aroma.
The frequent stirring (help) expose the material to an exchange of air
and hastens.
• Drying of drugs containing volatile oils: These drugs are usually air
dried or dried in mechanical dryers at temperature low enough to
prevent the loss of active constituents not exceeding 35 ̊C.
Drying of crude drugs
Drying of roots and underground plant parts:
Temperature ranges from 30 – 65 ̊C. In case of large and fleshy roots.
They are usually sliced into small pieces to facilitate drying in suitable
climate conditions. These drugs may be sun dried but process requires
about 1 to 2 weeks. So the drugs need to frequently turn over to ensure
proper ventilation and prevent molding.
Drying of barks: Temperature ranges from 30 – 65 ̊C. they are usually
naturally dried either under shade or under sun, depending upon active
constituents. For example alkaloids present in cinchona bark decompose
in the presence of moisture that’s why artificial drying is required for
cinchona bark.
Drying of crude drugs
• Drying of fruits and seeds: These are usually dried before collection.
If not completely dried, then may be dried artificially or by natural
means.
• Drying of flowers: They usually contain volatile oils and active
principles are usually thermolabile. Therefore great care is required
for the drying of floral drugs. They are usually dried in mechanical
dryers. Temperature should be very low between 20 - 40 ̊ C. Fairly
rapid drying helps the flowers to retain their color. During artificial
drying care should be taken that the exterior layer is dried rapidly and
forms a crust which retards further drying to avoid this condition
Curing / Fermentation / Sweating
• Enzymes are destroyed very much by drying process. Therefore an alternative
process is utilized that is curing. It is a very old traditional method.
• In this process the crude drug is placed at 45 – 50 ̊C. In this way the enzymes
are not destroyed. The process takes time and it is also known as fermentation
or seating.
• Example: Curing of Vanilla: Vanilla planifolia is also called as Maxican vanilla
and, Vanilla tahitensis is also known as Tahiti vanilla. The fruits (pods, beans)
are collected when ripened to yellow color and are cured by dipping them in
warm water and repeatedly sweating them between wooden blanket in the
sun during the day and packing in wool covered boxes at night during this
period vanillin is enzymatically produced and may accumulate as white
crystals on surface of fruit. The fruit also turn brown and lose 70% to 80% of
their original weight and take on the characteristic aromatic odor.
Curing of Tea
• There are two types of tea. These both a cured in different ways as
follows;
• Green tea: It is prepared in China and Japan by rapidly drying freshly
collected leaves in copper pans. Over a mild artificial heat. The leaves
are then rolled between the palms and are stored in air tight containers.
• Black tea: It is prepared in Sri Lanka and India by rapidly drying freshly
collected leaves which are heaped and are heated artificially.
Fermentation occur, tea leaves attain characteristic odor and become
dried at this stage. The color of tea is blackish green and black in color.
This is black tea.
3. Garbling
• Removal of extraneous matter (undesired material) from the collected
plant parts is called as garbling. If the drug is not properly garbled it
reduces the quality and price of drug.
• Example:
• Removal of soil from roots and underground plant parts.
• Removal of petiols and stepules from the leaves.
Packaging and storage
Packaging of crude drug is necessary. It is not the part of preparation of
crude drug though. Packaging of a crude drug depends upon the plant
part or the active constituents present inside in it.
Precautions while packaging
If the crude drug is hygroscopic in nature then it is packed in an air
tight container with a dehydrating agent.
If fixed or volatile oil is to be packed, then air tight containers should
be used because air can recodification of volatile oils or of fixed oils.
 Herbs should be pressed by applying pressure converted into hand
and compact mass packed in burlab (jute) covering and properly
sewn.
Precautions while packaging

Moisture proof containers with dehydrating agent packed in boxes

and barrel tin cans.
Volatile oils should be sealed in well filled container. Air should be
replaced by some inert gas otherwise oxygen present in air can cause
oxidation of oil.
 Old packing is still in use for certain crude drugs. For example; Aloe is
packed in 55 gallon steel drums. Rose oil is packed in lead flasks.
Sarsaparilla roots are packed in seroons large bales covered with cow
hides.
Factors causing deterioration
Deterioration is majorly caused by two factors.
1. Primary factors:
The detail of primary factors are given below;
Moisture:
 Excessive moisture increases the weight of the crude drugs which
decreases the percentage of active constituents of crude drugs. It also
causes fungal growth and enzymatic activity.
In case of gums and resins and mucilage they are due to presence of
moisture becomes sticky and slimy because they reabsorb water very fast
as compared to the bark and wood drugs which reabsorbs little moisture
Moisture
Leaves, herbs and root drugs if not properly packed reabsorb
moisture up to 10 – 15% or even up to 30% of weight of drug.
In certain drugs for example glycosides containing drugs such as
digitalis, the drugs become ineffective due to hydrolysis of glycosides.
Excess of moisture is considered adulterant.
Leaves and herb, these are bailed into solid compact mass.
In order to save drug from moisture, for this it should be packed in air
tight container with dehydrating agent and periodically the agent is
replaced with new when moistened.
Temperature
Increase in temperature means increase in enzymatic activity and loss
of volatile component. Therefore, to prevent these warehouse should
be cool and drug must be stored at low temperature as possible.
Sera, vaccine, hormonal precautions must be refrigerated at 6 ̊C.
Light:
Direct sunlight may cause decomposition of certain constituents for
example vitamins. Decolorization of drug or bleaching of crude drug
for example leaf and flower drug, cod liver oil.
Polarize light produce degeneration rapidly and light reflected from
plant part is polarize to some extent. Therefore the drugs should be
packed in light resistant containers and warehouses should be dark.
• Oxygen:
• Presence of oxygen in the air causes oxidation, especially the enzyme
oxidase present inside is responsible.
• In case of fixed oil rancidity may occur. In case of drug having volatile
oils, they should be stored in sealed containers and air must be
replaced by an inert gas inside the cane.
• Warehouses should be dark.
2. Secondary factors
The detail of secondary factors are given below;
Microorganisms:
 Wherever there is moisture there will be chance of microbial contamination.
 To avoid from microbial contamination the crude drugs must be dried immediately and
use of antimicrobials.
Insects:
 Insects those attack on the crude drugs belongs to three groups;
 Lepedoptera
 Coleoptera
Dptera
Most destructive insects such as moths which even in larval stage attack on crude drugs
and fruit drug material. They attack mainly on species i.e. cinnamon, clove etc. the
insects mainly attack on floral drugs.
Methods to control deterioration
• It can be controlled by managing;
• As low temperature as possible
• By storing the crude drugs at warehouses
• By protecting the drug from direct sunlight.
• By controlling over humidity and proper ventilation of air.
• There should be no hole in the walls, roofs and floor.
• Deterioration & Adulteration of Crude drugs
Deterioration & Adulteration of Crude
drugs
The drugs loses their quality either by deficiency of knowledge or
carelessness of the collector degrades the drug.
Similarly, due to carelessness in drying and garbling. Carelessness in
drying and improper preservation may leads to accidental
contamination.
Moreover, odor or taste from other nearby stored drugs may
contaminate, thus lowers the quality of crude drugs.
Contamination vs. Adulteration:
Contamination:
Contamination means impurity left by collector of admitted
accidentally or by carelessness.
Contamination vs. Adulteration:

• Adulteration: It means either addition of impurity or removal of all

active constituents or a part of active constituents.
• It also indicate the low grade drug or spoiled drug with a definite
intention of fraud.
• In legal sense the adulteration is debasement of any article food or
any other substance.
• Example: Loss of caffeine by over roasting of coffee beans.
• Hardening of powdered squill due to absorption of moisture.
• Ergot contaminated by mold or any drug infested by insects.
Types of Adulteration
The different types of adulteration are discussed below;
1. Inferiority: It refers to a substandard drug or any other substance
regardless to the cost. Any substandard drug produce naturally.
Example: Dried seeds of Nux-vomica containing less than 1.15%
strychnine would be of inferior quality and substandard drug.
2. Spoilage: It is a condition of a food or a drug (crude) in which quality
of the usefulness of the materials has been destroyed by fungus or
bacteria or molds to such an extent that it is not fit for human use such
drugs are legally considered as adulterated drugs.
Types of Adulteration
3. Admixture:
Addition of one material to another either accidently or carelessly or
ignorance. If done intentionally then considered adulteration and
specifically admixture.
Example: Addition of rodent feed matter into cardamom seeds.
4. Substitution:
It can be defined as complete replacement of one article with another
article, is referred to as substitution.
Example: Replacement of fructose with glucose is a substitution
adulteration.
Types of Adulteration
• 5. Deterioration:
• It means any impairment of quality either by removing (abduction) or
by destruction of valuable constituents by different means e.g.
distillation, fungus, insects, heat, moisture, aging etc.
• 6. Sophistication:
• Addition of inferior material to another article with a definite
intention of fraud, is referred to as sophistication.
• Example: Addition of wheat flour to ginger powder.
Types of Adulteration
• 7. True adulteration:
• Sometimes the adulteration is done intentionally for beneficial
consequences, such type of adulteration is called “True adulteration.”
• Example: capsicum and turmeric are mixed together for pungency.