Karbohidrat

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 Carbohydrates
•Carbohydrates are called carbohydrates because they
are essentially hydrates of carbon (i.e. they are
composed of carbon and water and have a
composition of (CH2O)n.

•The major nutritional role of carbohydrates is to

provide energy and digestible carbohydrates provide
4 kilocalories per gram. No single carbohydrate is
essential, but carbohydrates do participate in many
required functions in the body.
 KH

Monosakarida Disakarida oligosakarida polisakarida

gizi Non gizi Gizi Non gizi

Glu, gal, fruk Sukrosa, maltosa, laktosa
Simple Sugars -
Disaccharides
 Complex carbohydrates

 Oligosaccharides
FOS Verbakosa
Rafinosa
Stakiosa
 Polysaccharides
 Starch
 Glycogen

 Dietary fiber
 Oligosakarida
 Stakiosa
Stachyose is a tetrasaccharide consisting of two D-
galactose units, one D-glucose unit, and one D-
fructose unit sequentially linked. Stachyose is a
normal human metabolite present in human milk
and is naturally found in many vegetables (e. g.
green beans, soybeans and other beans) and plants.
 Verbakosa
 Verbascose is a pentasaccharide that is stachiose which
has an additional unit of alpha-D-galactopyranose
attached by a 1->6 glycosidic linkage to the terminal
galactosyl residue. It is a pentasaccharide and a
raffinose family oligosaccharide. It derives from a
stachyose.
 soaking red kidney beans at room temperature for 12
hours reduced their raffinose content by about 80%
and additional boiling for 14 minutes by 96%; soaking
had about the same effect on stachyose
 Rafinosa
Raffinose, also called melitose, is
composed of 3 sugars: galactose,
glucose and fructose [1]. Examples
of foods naturally high in
raffinose are beans, asparagus,
cotton seeds, sugar beet molasses,
cabbage, broccoli, Brussel’s
sprouts, sweet potatoes and
whole grains [3,5]. Raffinose as a
sweetener is extracted from sugar
beet molasses.
 Uses
Raffinose, stachyose and verbascose are used as
bulk sweeteners.

 Side Effects
Raffinose, stachyose and verbascose are examples
of FODMAPs (Fermentable Oligo-, Di- and
Monosaccharides and Polyols), which, when
consumed in excess, can trigger abdominal
bloating, excessive gas and diarrhea.
 FOS
 Fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS) also,
known by the name oligofructose or
oligo fructan are naturally presents
in higher plants such as, fruits and
vegetables [9].
 They are short chain of fructose
polymer that are different from
inulin in the degree of fructose
polymerization (DP). Inulin has
higher degree of fructose
polymerization (DP), and is present
in higher plants such as, in Jerusalem
artichoke.
 Galacto-oligosaccharides (GalOS) are naturally occurred in milk at
low concentration [18], and commercially produced enzymatically by
trans galactosylation of milk sugar lactose as a substrate, using the
microbial enzyme ß-galactosidase (EC 3.2.1.23) derived from the
mold Aspergillus oryzae.
 This enzyme uses one of the two disaccharide lactose inthe
enzymatic reaction as galactose donor, and the second lactose as
galactose acceptor for the production of galacto–oligosaccharides
 Starch
 Major storage carbohydrate
in higher plants
 Amylose – long straight
glucose chains (a1-4)
 Amylopectin – branched
every 24-30 glc residues (a 1-
6)
 Provides 80% of dietary
calories in humans worldwide
 Glycogen
 Major storage
carbohydrate in animals G
G G
 Long straight glucose G G G
G G
chains (a1-4) G G
G
 Branched every 4-8 glc G G a 1-6 link
G
residues (a 1-6) a 1-4 link
G
G
G
 More branched than G
G
starch
 Less osmotic pressure
 Easily mobilized
 Inulin

Struktur kimia inulin . n adalah tingkat polimerisasi atau jumlah β-D- fructofuranose; G dan F
adalah glukosa dan fruktosa; GpyFn adalah α-D-glucopyranosyl-[β-D-fructofuranosyl](n-1)-
D-fructofuranoside (Roberfroid and Delzenne, 1998)
 Pektin
 Pektin adalah suatu polisakarida yang tersusun dari monomer asam D-
galakturonat yang dihubungkan dengan ikatan 1-4 glikosidik (Gambar 4.2).
Pektin merupakan penyususn hampir sepertiga dinding sel bahan kering
tanaman tingkat tinggi, dan terutama ditemukan pada lamella tengah dinding
sel. Secara komesial pectin diekstrak menggunakan asam encer dengan pH
sekitar 2 (Sriamornsak, 2003). Karakteristik pembentuk gel pectin ditentukan
oleh ukuran molekuk dan tingkat esterifikasi (degree of esterification (DE)).
 Selulosa
 Dinding sel buah dan sayur umumnya terdiri dari lamella tengan
dan lapisan dinding utama yang kaya akan serat pangan. Lamela
tengah terutama disusun oleh senyawa peptic dimana dinding sel
primer mengandung selulosa (Heredia et al., 1995). Selulosa
merupakan polimer rantai lurus dengan monomer glukosa yang
dihubungkan oleh ikatan β(1→4) (Gambar 4.3), tidak larut dalam
air tahan terhadap enzim pencernaan di usus halus tetapi dapat
diferentasi sebagian di usus besar (Lattimer dan Haub, 2010).
Sumber karbohidrat utama
 Dietary Fiber
 structural parts of plants
– found in all plant derived food
 bonds of fibers cannot be broken down
during the digestive process
– minimal or no energy available
Report of the Dietary Fiber Definition Committee to the Board of
Directors of the American Association Of Cereal Chemists. Submitted
January 10,2001.

 “Dietary fiber is the edible parts of plants

or analogous carbohydrates that are
resistant to digestion and absorption in the
human small intestine with complete or
partial fermentation in the large intestine.
Dietary fiber includes polysaccharides,
oligosaccharides, lignin, and associated
plant substances. Dietary fibers promote
beneficial physiological effects including
laxation, and/or blood cholesterol
attenuation, and/or blood glucose
attenuation.”
 Fiber types

 cellulose
 pectins
 lignins
 resistant starches
– classified as fibers
– escape digestion and
absorption
 Pati Resisten
 Tidak semua pati dalam bahan pangan dapat di hidrolisis oleh enzim α-amilase
walaupun diinkubasi dalam waktu yang lama dengan enzim tersebut.
 Pati yang tidak dapat dihidrolis oleh enzim ini dikenal sebagai pati resisten
(Resistant starch = RS).
 Dikenal 4 jenis pati resisten yaitu:
- pati resisten tipe satu (RS1) yang merupakan pati yang secara fisik terlindungi
oleh komponen lain dari bahan pangan sehingga enzim tidak dapat
menjangkau granula pati;
- Pati resisten tipe dua (RS2) merupakan pati mentah yang bentuk granula
patinya secara alamiah tidak mampu ditembus oleh enzim, tetapi bisa dimasak,
pati resisten jenis ini menjadi tidak resisten;
- Pati resisten tipe tiga (RS3) merupakan pati teretrogradasi yang terbentuk
akibat proses pengolahan; dan
- pati resisten tipe 4 (RS4) yang merupakan pati termodifikasi, baik hasil
modifikasi kimia atau fisik (Leszcznski, 2004; Keim et al., 2006).
 Manfaat pati resisten
 Pati resisten dianggap menjadi komponen
pangan yang penting karena berpengaruh positif
terhadap kesehatan (Mikulikova et al., 2006;
Alsaffar, 2011).
 Karena jenis pati ini tidak dapat dicerna dan
diserap di usus halus maka pati resisten dapat
juga dikelompokkan sebagai serat pangan
(Lattimer dan Haub, 2010).
 Sumber pati yang mengandung kadar pati
resisten tinggi umumnya memiliki nilai glisemik
yang rendah (Silva et al., 2011).
http://www.lsuagcenter.com/en/communications/publications/agmag/Arc
hive/2013/Fall/DietaryResistantStarchInvestigatingtheMechanismforBen
eficialHealthEffects.htm
Metabolisme KH
 Whole body effects of chronic fructose consumption.

Mark J. Dekker et al. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab

2010;299:E685-E694

©2010 by American Physiological Society

 Sorbitol
• Although small amounts of sorbitol are present is some fruits, the commercial
source of sorbitol is the dextrose (glucose) produced from cornstarch. Sorbitol is
manufactured by hydrogenating (adding hydrogen) the recovered dextrose.
While another name for sorbitol is glucitol (resembling glucose), sorbitol is the
term used by the food industry.
• Sorbitol is about 60% as sweet as sucrose, and is considered to have 2.6 calories
per gram. The Food and Drug Administration concurs with this caloric value.
• FDA regulations permit sorbitol to be used in food “at levels not to exceed good
manufacturing practices.” These regulations further require that any sorbitol-
containing foods whose consumption would add 50 grams (1-3/4 ounces) of
sorbitol to a person’s diet must be labeled with the statement, “Excess
consumption may have a laxative effect.”
• Sorbitol is used in hard and soft candies, flavored jam and jelly spreads, baked
goods and baking mixes, chewing gum and cough drops. The maximum amount
of sorbitol permitted in each of these products is regulated by FDA.
Dietary Fiber
Metabolisme DF

Colon
Microbial
pH
Phenolic metabolites
SCFA

CRC
pH
Manfaat DF
 Kekurangan Energi:  Kelebihan energi: the
Starvation is the potential effects
physical condition of glycemic index, total
brought about by sugar intake, and added
inadequate sugar intake on
consumption, increasing the risk for
absorption, or coronary heart disease,
retention of protein or cancer, diabetes, or
dietary energy obesity
Complications of Childhood
obesity
 Relationship Between Weight Gain
in Adulthood and Risk of Type 2
6
Diabetes Mellitus
Men
5 Women
Relative Risk

0
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
Weight Change (kg)
Willett et al. N Engl J Med 1999;341:427.
Kategori RDA/AI Pertimbangan
1 – 18 tahun RDA=130 Cukup Iuntuk mensuplai glukosa bagi
g/hari kebutuhan otak dan sel sistem saraf pusat,
tidak perluprotein atau trigliserida
0- 6 bulan AI= 60 g/hari Sama dengan kaarbohidrat dari ASI, dan
dianggap optimal untuk pertumbuhan dan
perkembangan pada 6 bulan pertama
7-12 bulan AI = 95 g/hari Setara dengan karbohidrat dari ASI dan
makanan tambahan

The World Health Organization recommended that added sugar intake

should not exceed 10% of total energy intake
Recommendations from the American Heart Association set an upper daily
limit of energy intake from added sugar at 100 kcal for women and 150 kcal
for men .
 Mengurangi  Meningkatkan
kualitas/kandungan Kualitas/meningkatkan
energi kandungan energi
- Reaksi maillard - Pemasakan pati resisten
- Oksidasi: tipe 1 dan 2
glukosa>sorbitol
- Isomerisasi:
Laktosa>laktulosa
- Dehidrasi:
Heksosa>HMF
- Karamelisasi
 General scheme of MR browning
Melanoidins Amides
Amine Ammonia Brown colour Acrylamide
Phospholipids
Amino acids
Proteins
Amino Carbonyl
HEAT Interaction
(Amadori product)
Aldehydes
Carbonyl Ketones
Reducing sugars Furans, Pyrroles,
Polysaccharides Thiopenes, Thiazoles,
Oxidised lipids Oxazoles, Imidazoles,
Pyridines, Pyrazines
Chemical reactions
MAILLARD BROWNING
 Not well defined and not all pathways known
 However, the following must be there for Maillard
browning to occur:
1) A compound with an amino group (typically an amino acid
or protein – most commonly lysine)
2) A reducing sugar (most commonly glucose)
3) Water
 Can follow the reaction by observing color formation
(420 or 490 nm in a spectrophotometer) or by
following CO2 production

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