Week 1

Sine Waveform Measurements

Peak value: VRMS:

Peak to peak value: f:
Period:

If vertical scale: 2v/Div and time scale: 5ms/Div

2
 Phase shift

Two sine waveforms with the same frequency

a. The difference of initial angles
b. q = t ´ 360 0
T

T: period of a sine wave, t: time difference of the two sine waves

3
Example: Phase shift measurement

Time scale: 2ms/Div

t 1Div ´ 2ms / Div

q= ´ 360 0 = ´ 360 0 = 57.140
T 6.3Div ´ 2ms / Div

T: period of a sine wave, t: time difference of the two sine waves 4

 Examples:

a. If NP=500 turns and NS=100 turns

what is the ratio of this transformer?
is this a step down or step up transformer?
N P 500turns
a= = = 5 :1 a>1, so this is a step down transformer
N S 100turns
b. If input voltage (primary voltage) VP=120 V
what is the output voltage (secondary) this transformer?

N P VP VP 120V
a= = VS = = = 24V
N S VS a 5
5
c. A transformer power rating is 100KVA (apparent power) ,
ratio is 10:1, VP=24KV. Please calculate the following
parameters:

1) IP P = I P ×VP

P 100KVA
IP = = = 4.2A
VP 24KV
2) VS
N P VP VP 24KV
a= = VS = = = 2.4KV
N S VS a 10

3) IS I P VS VP
= IS = ´ I P = a ´ I P =10 ´ 4.2A = 42A
I S VP VS
6
Example:
Calculate the amperage of this fuse, and
the maximum output current (IS)
If input voltage (VP) is 120V, output
voltage (VS ) is 24V and power rating is 2VA

P 2W
P = I P ×VP IP = = =16.67mA
VP 120V

P = I S ×VS P 2W
IP = = = 83mA
VP 24V

N P VP I S 120
or a= = = I S = aI P = ×16.67 = 83mA
N S VS I P 24
7
Conductors
• Allow current to flow easily.
• Large number of free electrons.
• Atoms have 1 to 3 valence electrons.
• Usually metals are good conductors
 Silver
 Copper
 Gold
 Aluminum

8
Semiconductors
• Neither good conductor nor insulator.
• Atoms have 4 valence electrons.
• Two common materials
 Silicon and germanium.

Silicon crystal Germanium crystal

9
Insulators
• Materials that do not conduct.
• Have very few free electrons.
• Atoms have 5 or more valence electrons.
• High voltage will cause an insulator to break down and conduct.

10
 Forward Bias

The width of the depletion Region is reduced

11
 Reverse Bias

The width of the depletion region is increased, no electron flow.

12
Diode Models
1. The ideal model

(Ignored the barrier potential VF)

Forward Bias 13
 Reverse Bias

For the ideal model, diode is considered as a switch:

a. When the diode is in forward bias, then the switch is closed

b. When the diode is in reverse bias, then the switch is open

14
Diode Equivalent Circuit of the Ideal Model

15
Examples:
For the given circuit below, if the DC power supply is 10V and the load resistance
is 20 ohms. Please calculate the circuit current using diode ideal model

20 W
10V

V 10V
I= = = 0.5A
R 20W

16
Examples:
For the given circuit below, if the DC power supply is 10V and the load resistance
is 20 ohms. Please calculate the circuit current using diode ideal model

For the open circuit, the total resistance is infinitive, so the circuit
current is zero

What is the voltage drop across the diode and the load?
The voltage drop across the diode is 10V

The voltage drop across the load is 0V 17

3. The complete model

Dynamic resistance
Ideal diode
rd
rd

Barrier potential

18
A 10V DC power supply powers a circuit with a diode and resistor in
series. The diode is in forward biased. Find the total current in the circuit
(using the complete model, if the dynamic resistance is 10 Ohms)

rd
Vb

I=(E-Vb)/(R+rd)=(10V-0.7V)/(9.3K+10W)=1.08mA

19
 Exercises

• Testing a diode (P. 95)

Consider the indications in each circuit of Fig 41 and determine whether the diode is
functioning properly, or whether it is open or shorted. Assume the ideal model.

20
21
22
23
Week 1 – Answers
 Sine Waveform Measurements

Peak value: VRMS:

Peak to peak value: f:
Period:

If vertical scale: 2v/Div and time scale: 5ms/Div

25
 Phase shift

Two sine waveforms with the same frequency

a. The difference of initial angles
b. q = t ´ 360 0
T

T: period of a sine wave, t: time difference of the two sine waves

26
Example: Phase shift measurement

Time scale: 2ms/Div

t 1Div ´ 2ms / Div

q= ´ 360 0 = ´ 360 0 = 57.140
T 6.3Div ´ 2ms / Div

T: period of a sine wave, t: time difference of the two sine waves 27

 Examples:

a. If NP=500 turns and NS=100 turns

what is the ratio of this transformer?
is this a step down or step up transformer?
N P 500turns
a= = = 5 :1 a>1, so this is a step down transformer
N S 100turns
b. If input voltage (primary voltage) VP=120 V
what is the output voltage (secondary) this transformer?

N P VP VP 120V
a= = VS = = = 24V
N S VS a 5
28
c. A transformer power rating is 100KVA (apparent power) ,
ratio is 10:1, VP=24KV. Please calculate the following
parameters:

1) IP P = I P ×VP

P 100KVA
IP = = = 4.2A
VP 24KV
2) VS
N P VP VP 24KV
a= = VS = = = 2.4KV
N S VS a 10

3) IS I P VS VP
= IS = ´ I P = a ´ I P =10 ´ 4.2A = 42A
I S VP VS
29
Example:
Calculate the amperage of this fuse, and
the maximum output current (IS)
If input voltage (VP) is 120V, output
voltage (VS ) is 24V and power rating is 2VA

P 2W
P = I P ×VP IP = = =16.67mA
VP 120V

P = I S ×VS P 2W
IP = = = 83mA
VP 24V

N P VP I S 120
or a= = = I S = aI P = ×16.67 = 83mA
N S VS I P 24
30
Conductors
• Allow current to flow easily.
• Large number of free electrons.
• Atoms have 1 to 3 valence electrons.
• Usually metals are good conductors
 Silver
 Copper
 Gold
 Aluminum

31
Semiconductors
• Neither good conductor nor insulator.
• Atoms have 4 valence electrons.
• Two common materials
 Silicon and germanium.

Silicon crystal Germanium crystal

32
Insulators
• Materials that do not conduct.
• Have very few free electrons.
• Atoms have 5 or more valence electrons.
• High voltage will cause an insulator to break down and conduct.

33
 Forward Bias

The width of the depletion Region is reduced

34
 Reverse Bias

The width of the depletion region is increased, no electron flow.

35
Diode Models
1. The ideal model

(Ignored the barrier potential VF)

Forward Bias 36
 Reverse Bias

For the ideal model, diode is considered as a switch:

a. When the diode is in forward bias, then the switch is closed

b. When the diode is in reverse bias, then the switch is open

37
Diode Equivalent Circuit of the Ideal Model

38
Examples:
For the given circuit below, if the DC power supply is 10V and the load resistance
is 20 ohms. Please calculate the circuit current using diode ideal model

20 W
10V

V 10V
I= = = 0.5A
R 20W

39
Examples:
For the given circuit below, if the DC power supply is 10V and the load resistance
is 20 ohms. Please calculate the circuit current using diode ideal model

For the open circuit, the total resistance is infinitive, so the circuit
current is zero

What is the voltage drop across the diode and the load?
The voltage drop across the diode is 10V

The voltage drop across the load is 0V 40

3. The complete model

Dynamic resistance
Ideal diode
rd
rd

Barrier potential

41
A 10V DC power supply powers a circuit with a diode and resistor in
series. The diode is in forward biased. Find the total current in the circuit
(using the complete model, if the dynamic resistance is 10 Ohms)

rd
Vb

I=(E-Vb)/(R+rd)=(10V-0.7V)/(9.3K+10W)=1.08mA

42
 Exercises

• Testing a diode (P. 95)

Consider the indications in each circuit of Fig 41 and determine whether the diode is
functioning properly, or whether it is open or shorted. Assume the ideal model.

43
44
45
46
Week 2
I-V Characteristic Curve of Zener Diode

The basic parameters are VZ, and maximum current

Iz(max)
48
Ideal Model of Zener Diode

VZ 0 VD

ID

If external voltage is less then VZ, then the ID=0, Zener diode is open
If external voltage is great or equal to VZ,, then the diode is closed
49
 Examples
Regulated output voltage

Va

If Va<VZ, this diode is open and Iz=0 Sink

If Va equals VZ, then the diode is closed with the barrier voltage VZ

50
If Vin=10V, Rs=1K, RL=2K, Vz=8V, Please find Va and load current.

Solution:
a. Assume that Va<VZ,, then the diode is open

Vin 10V
I= = = 3.3mA
Rs + RL 1k + 2K
Va
Va = IRL = 3.3mA× 2K = 6.6V

So Va is smaller than VZ, the assumption

is right, so the load current is 3.3mA

51
If Vin=24V, Rs=1K, RL=2K, Vz=8V, Please find Va and load current.

Solution:
Assume that Va<VZ, then the diode is open

Vin 24V
I= = = 8mA
Rs + RL 1k + 2K
Va
Va = IRL = 8mA× 2K =16V
So Va is greater than VZ, the assumption
is wrong, so the diode is closed.
Va = VZ = 8V
Va 8V
IL = = = 4mA
The load current is: RL 2k

52
Zener Limiting Circuit
For the given circuit below, if VP>VZ, please draw the output waveform

Zener can conduct current in both directions.

53
For the given circuit below, if VP>VZ, please draw the
output waveform. ZD1 and ZD2 are identical.

+0.7V

-0.7V

54
Examples
For the given circuit below, please calculate the circuit current, if VD=1.8V

E = VR +VD VR = I × R E = I × R +VD

E -VD 9 -1.8
I= = =15.32mA
R 470
55
 Current Limiting Resistor

Vs Vs  VLED
R
I LED

Example: Red LED with a 12V battery.

VLED = 1.8V
ILED = 20mA = 0.02 A
Vs  VLED 12V  1.8V 10.2V
R    510 W
I LED 0.02 A 0.02 A
56
 Assume that the input voltage vin is sufficiently large to cause diode
break down. What happens to the currents if R2 increases?

1. The current through R2 will decrease.

2. The current through R2 will barely change.
3. The current through R2 will increase.
4. The current through R1 will decrease.
5. The current through R1 will barely change.
6. The current through R1 will increase.
7. The current through the diode will decrease.
8. The current through the diode will barely change.
9. The current through the diode will increase.

Right answers:1,5,9 57
 Assume that the input voltage vin is sufficiently large, so that
there is a non-zero current through both diodes.
What happens to the currents if vin increases?

1. The current through R2 will decrease.

2. The current through R2 will barely change.
3. The current through R2 will increase.
4. The current through R1 will decrease.
5. The current through R1 will barely change.
6. The current through R1 will increase.
7. The current through the diodes will decrease.
8. The current through the diodes will barely change.
9. The current through the diodes will increase.

Right answers:2,6,9
58
Assume that the input voltage vin is sufficiently large and positive
to cause all diodes to conduct a non-zero current.
What happens to the voltages and the currents if a Zener diode
with a smaller breakdown would be used?

1. The voltage across R1 will decrease.

2. The voltage across R1 will barely change.
3. The voltage across R1 will increase.
4. The voltage across R2 will decrease.
5. The voltage across R2 will barely change.
6. The voltage across R2 will increase.
7. The current through the Zener diode will decrease.
8. The current through the Zener diode will barely change.
9. The current through the Zener diode will increase.

Right answers:3,4,9
59
 First find out what the Zener diode will do (conduct forward, break
down, not conduct). Then calculate the current in the loop.
Assume a knee voltage of 1 V .

The current in the loop is mA. If the polarity of the voltage source is
reversed, the current will run in the other direction and be equal to
mA.

25mA, 40mA
60
First find out what the Zener diode will do (conduct forward, break
down, not conduct). Then calculate all currents.

The current through the 330 Ω resistor is mA. The current

through the 100 Ω resistor is mA. The current through the
Zener diode is mA.

10mA,12mA,2mA
61
Week 3 Answers
I-V Characteristic Curve of Zener Diode

The basic parameters are VZ, and maximum current

Iz(max)
63
Ideal Model of Zener Diode

VZ 0 VD

ID

If external voltage is less then VZ, then the ID=0, Zener diode is open
If external voltage is great or equal to VZ,, then the diode is closed
64
 Examples
Regulated output voltage

Va

If Va<VZ, this diode is open and Iz=0 Sink

If Va equals VZ, then the diode is closed with the barrier voltage VZ

65
If Vin=10V, Rs=1K, RL=2K, Vz=8V, Please find Va and load current.

Solution:
a. Assume that Va<VZ,, then the diode is open

Vin 10V
I= = = 3.3mA
Rs + RL 1k + 2K
Va
Va = IRL = 3.3mA× 2K = 6.6V

So Va is smaller than VZ, the assumption

is right, so the load current is 3.3mA

66
If Vin=24V, Rs=1K, RL=2K, Vz=8V, Please find Va and load current.

Solution:
Assume that Va<VZ, then the diode is open

Vin 24V
I= = = 8mA
Rs + RL 1k + 2K
Va
Va = IRL = 8mA× 2K =16V
So Va is greater than VZ, the assumption
is wrong, so the diode is closed.
Va = VZ = 8V
Va 8V
IL = = = 4mA
The load current is: RL 2k

67
Zener Limiting Circuit
For the given circuit below, if VP>VZ, please draw the output waveform

Zener can conduct current in both directions.

68
For the given circuit below, if VP>VZ, please draw the
output waveform. ZD1 and ZD2 are identical.

+0.7V

-0.7V

69
Examples
For the given circuit below, please calculate the circuit current, if VD=1.8V

E = VR +VD VR = I × R E = I × R +VD

E -VD 9 -1.8
I= = =15.32mA
R 470
70
 Current Limiting Resistor

Vs Vs  VLED
R
I LED

Example: Red LED with a 12V battery.

VLED = 1.8V
ILED = 20mA = 0.02 A
Vs  VLED 12V  1.8V 10.2V
R    510 W
I LED 0.02 A 0.02 A
71
 Assume that the input voltage vin is sufficiently large to cause diode
break down. What happens to the currents if R2 increases?

1. The current through R2 will decrease.

2. The current through R2 will barely change.
3. The current through R2 will increase.
4. The current through R1 will decrease.
5. The current through R1 will barely change.
6. The current through R1 will increase.
7. The current through the diode will decrease.
8. The current through the diode will barely change.
9. The current through the diode will increase.

Right answers:1,5,9 72
 Assume that the input voltage vin is sufficiently large, so that
there is a non-zero current through both diodes.
What happens to the currents if vin increases?

1. The current through R2 will decrease.

2. The current through R2 will barely change.
3. The current through R2 will increase.
4. The current through R1 will decrease.
5. The current through R1 will barely change.
6. The current through R1 will increase.
7. The current through the diodes will decrease.
8. The current through the diodes will barely change.
9. The current through the diodes will increase.

Right answers:2,6,9
73
Assume that the input voltage vin is sufficiently large and positive
to cause all diodes to conduct a non-zero current.
What happens to the voltages and the currents if a Zener diode
with a smaller breakdown would be used?

1. The voltage across R1 will decrease.

2. The voltage across R1 will barely change.
3. The voltage across R1 will increase.
4. The voltage across R2 will decrease.
5. The voltage across R2 will barely change.
6. The voltage across R2 will increase.
7. The current through the Zener diode will decrease.
8. The current through the Zener diode will barely change.
9. The current through the Zener diode will increase.

Right answers:3,4,9
74
 First find out what the Zener diode will do (conduct forward, break
down, not conduct). Then calculate the current in the loop.
Assume a knee voltage of 1 V .

The current in the loop is mA. If the polarity of the voltage source is
reversed, the current will run in the other direction and be equal to
mA.

25mA, 40mA
75
First find out what the Zener diode will do (conduct forward, break
down, not conduct). Then calculate all currents.

The current through the 330 Ω resistor is mA. The current

through the 100 Ω resistor is mA. The current through the
Zener diode is mA.

10mA,12mA,2mA
76