EP391: Lecture 2

Diodes
Silicon
Silicon by itself is a poor conductor i.e. semi-conductor
Covalent bonding
Silicon Doping
p-doping
n-doping
Arsenic: donor Gallium: acceptor
Current Flow
N-Type Semiconductor
P-Type Semiconductor
Electron flow in
Conduction Band
Hole flow in Valence Band
PN Junction
Diagram showing distribution of electrons and holes
in a PN junction and the resulting depletion region
Potential profile across the depletion region, represented by a battery
PN Junction: Forward Bias
Forward bias PN junction
showing motion of
electrons and holes
Graph showing
components of current
Potential across junction
becomes - V
PN Junction: Reverse Bias
The depletion region widens
Potential across junction
becomes + V
Ideal Diode: I-V characteristic
Diode Symbol
Question 1.
What is the current through the diode and
the voltage across the diode for the
following two circuits?
Question 2.
What is the output voltage for the following
circuit? (a Rectifier)
Forward Bias Reverse Bias
Rectified Output
V across diode
Question 3.
For the following circuit, if is a sinusoid with 24-V peak
amplitude, find the fraction of each cycle during which the
diode conducts. Find the peak value of the diode current
and the maximum reverse-bias voltage that appears
across the diode.
24sin 12
30 150, or 1/3 of a cycle
24 12
0.12A
100
The maximum revers voltage is 24+12=36V
d
I
U
U
u
e e

! !
Junction Diode
There are 3 areas of operation
The forward-bias region
v > V
x
The reverse-bias region
v < V
x
The breakdown region
v < -V
zk
Vx
-Vzk
Areas Expanded
Shockley Equation: Exponential
Model
I is the forward-bias current
Occurs when v on the diode is positive.
the cut-in voltage is the voltage beneath which
the current is negligible small (generally around
.5V)
The current exponentially increases, and the
voltage drop typically lies in a narrow range from
.6V to .8V

'
+

'

= 1
T
D
nV
V
s
e I I
Shockley Diode Equationcontd
I
s
is the reverse saturation current.
The saturation current is directly proportional to
the cross-sectional area of the diode.
For small-signal diodes, the saturation current
is on the order of 10e-15A.
Strongly correlated to temperature
doubles for every 5C rise in temperature.

'
+

'

= 1
T
D
nV
V
s
e I I
Shockley Diode Equationcontd
q
kT
V
e I I
T
nV
V
s
T
D
!

'
+

'

!
Voltage Thermal is
1
-23
-19
Boltzmann's constant = 1.38x10 joules/kelvin
Absolute temperature in kelvins = 273+
the magnitude of electronic charge = 1.60x10 coulomb
k
T C
q
!
!
!
o
at room temperature (20 C), the value o is 25.2m
We generally use 25m
T
T
V
V }
o
Shockley Diode Equationcontd

'
+

'

! 1
T
D
nV
V
s
e I I
n is a constant between 1 and 2 that represents
variances in the material and physical structure
of the diode.
Diodes made using standard integrated circuit
techniques exhibit an n close to 1.
Diodes available as two-terminal devices
generally exhibit an n closer to 2.
Also, we tend to use 1 for Ge and 2 for Si.
We will use n=1 unless specified.
Reverse Bias Region

'
+

'

! 1
T
D
nV
V
s
e I I
In the reverse-bias region, the current is
theoretically
Real diodes often exhibit a much larger
current due to leakages. However, the
current is still quite small (nA range).
There is also a slight increase with voltage
for reverse-bias current.
s
I I $
Breakdown Region
When the voltage reaches a certain negative
potential, the diode will begin conducting current.
This knee is known as the breakdown voltage,
Vzk.
The Z stands for Zener and the K for knee.
We will learn more about Zener diodes later
(diodes that make use of the breakdown voltage
and its near constant voltage/current relationship
to be used in voltage regulation).
Example
A certain diode has I
D
= 0.1 mA for V
D
= 0.6 V.
Assume n is unity and V
T
= 0.026. Compute
the diode current at V
D
= 0.65 V.
Using the above derived equation we get I
D
=
0.683 mA when V
D
= 0.65 V

'
+

'

'
+

'

=
= =
= =

1
2
1
2
1 2
1
2
2 1
log 3 . 2 ln

1 2
1
2
2 1
D
D
T
D
D
T D D
nV
V V
nV
V
nV
V
D
D
nV
V
s D
nV
V
s D
I
I
nV
I
I
nV V V
e
e
e
I
I
e I I e I I
T
D D
T
D
T
D
T
D
T
D
Diode Models
Objective is to understand different diode
models.
Ideal-Diode Model
Exponential Model
Piecewise-linear Model
Constant Voltage-drop Model
Then apply appropriate models to
different circuits
Solving a Circuit: Different models
Given V
DD
= 5V and R=1K, find I
D
and V
D
Assuming Ideal Diode
mA
R
V
I
V
DD
d
D
5
0 ias, Forward In
= =
=
Constant Voltage-Drop Model
Problem Solving using CVD Model
Repeat previous problem using the constant
voltage drop model
mA
k
I
V V
D
D
3 . 4
1
7 . 0 5
7 . 0
=
O

=
=
Piecewise-Linear Model
Also known as the battery
+ resistance model
0
0
0
0,
,
D D D
D D
D D D
D
i v V
v V
i v V
r
=
+

= >

' '
0
0.65 and 20
D D
V r = = O
Problem Solving using PWL Model
Repeat earlier problem using the
Piecewise linear model given
0
0.65V and 20
D D
V r ! ! ;
0
5 0.65
4.26mA
1 0.02
0.65 4.26 0.02 0.735V
D
D D D D
I
V V I r

! !

! ! v !
Exponential Model
Assuming Exponential Model
V
D
depend on I
D
, and I
D
depends on V
D
How do we solve?
Option 1. Iterative Analysis
Turns out that we cant solve this simple little
equation it involves a:
transcendental function
A function which is not an algebraic function. In other words,
a function which "transcends," i.e., cannot be expressed in
terms of, algebra. Examples of transcendental functions
include the exponential function, the trigonometric functions,
and the inverse functions of both.
Solving Exponential Model Using
Equations
Determine the current and the diode voltage for the
following circuit with Vdd=5V and R=1k. Assume that
the diode has a current of 1 mA at a voltage of .7 V
and that its voltage drop changes by .1 V for every
decade of change in current.
2 2
2 1
1 1
2
2 1
1
1 1 2 2
Iteration 1
5 0.7
4.3m
1
ln 2.3 log
2.3 .1
0.1log
0.7 , 1m , 4.3m 0.763
DD D
D
T T
T
V V
I
R
I I
V V nV nV
I I
nV
I
V V
I
V I I V

= = =
= =
=
= +
= = = 2
Iteration 2
5 0.763
4.237mA
1
4.237
0.763 0.1log 0.762V
4.3
D
I
V

! !
! !
Exponential Model
Option 2. Graphical Analysis
Try out yourself
For the same circuit, find the current and the diode
voltage with Vdd=5V and R=10k. Assume that the
diode has a current of 1 mA at a voltage of .7 V and
that its voltage drop changes by .1 V for every decade
of change in current. Use (a) iteration, (b) piecewise-
linear with the same parameters, (c) the constant-
voltage-drop model, and (d) ideal model
(a) 0.434 mA, 0.663V; (b) 0.434mA, 0.659V; (c) 0.43mA, 0.7V;
(d) 0.5 mA
Forward Bias Diode as a Regulator
Diode Regulator
Design the following circuit to provide an output voltage of 2.4V. Assume
the diodes have a current of 1 mA at a voltage of .7 V and that its voltage
drop changes by .1 V for every decade of change in current.
2.4V. Each diode must therefore drop .8V
The current must be 1 decade above 1mA in order
for the diode to change from .7 to .8V drops.
Thus, the current is 10mA, and the resistance must be
10 2.4
10m
O
V
R
!

! A, 760 R ! ;
Zener Diodes
Operate in breakdown region due
to their stable constant voltage
Example Part A
a) Find with no load and
with at its nominal value.
O
V
V
+
0
0 0
0
0
6.8 20 5 , 6.7
10 6.7
6.346
0.5 0.02
6.7 6.346 0.02 6.827
Z Z z Z
Z Z
Z
z
z
O Z Z z
V V r I
V mA V V
V V
I mA
R r
V V I r V

!
! ;v !

! ! !

! ! v !
A 6.8-V Zener diode in the circuit
below is specified to have Vz=6.8V
at Iz=5mA, rz=20 ohms, and
Izk=0.2mA. The supply voltage is
nominally 10V but can vary by +/-
1V.
Example Part B
20
1 38.5
500 2
Line Regulation 38.5m /
0
z
O
z
r
V V mV
R r
+
A = A = - =
+ +
)
b) ind the change in resulting from the 1V change in .
Note that / usually expressed in mV/V, is kno n
line regulation as .
O
V
V V

( ( V V /
0
Example Part C
)
c) Find the change in resulting rom connecting a load
resistance that draws a current o 1 m , and hence
load regulation ind the in m /m .
O
L L
O L
V
R I
V I A A
The load dra s a current of 1mA
from the diodes .
o
..
ad
20 1 20
egulation=-20mV/mA
O z Z
V r I mV ( ! ( ! v !
Example Part D
The load current ill be approximately
6.8V/ 2k 3.4mA
20 3.4 68mV
This is a quick estimate as it doesn't account
for the change in the diode current.
, ,
o
O z Z
O Z
O O
D L
z L
O
D L
V r I
V V
V V V
I I I
R r R
V V
I I I
R

; !
( ! ( ! v !

! ! !

! !
10 6.7
40 4 100 670
500 20 2000
105 710 6.762
6.762 6.827 65mV
o
O Z
O
z L
O O O
O O O
O O
O
V V
V
r R
V V V
V V V
V V V
V

! !
! !
( ! !
d) Find the change in when 2
O L
V R k = O
Example Part E
of .5k ould dra a load current of
6.8/ 0.5 13.6mA. This is not possible as
the current though is only 6.4mA. Therefore,
the Zener must be cut off.
0.5
10 5V
0.5 0.5
Therefore, the zener i
L
L
O
L
R
R
V V
R R

;
!
! ! !

s not in breakdo n.
e) ind the change in hen 0.5
O L
V R k ! ;
Example Part F
L
To be at breakdo n, 0.2mA
and 6.7V. In this case, the
orst-case (lo est) current through is
9 6.7
4.6mA. The load current is therefore
0.5
4.6 0.2 4.4mA. is therefore
6.7
1.523k
4.4
Z ZK
Z ZK
L
I I
V V
R
! !
! !

!
!
! ! ;
f) What is the minimum value of for which the diode
still operates in the breakdown region?
L
R
Halfwave Rectifier
Given Circuit in (a)
Consider the piecewise-linear
model circuit (b)
Draw the v
o
/v
s
transfer
characteristic (c)
Draw the input and output
waveforms (d)
What is the Peak-Inverse
Voltage (PIV) across the
diode?
PIV=Vs
Full-Wave Rectifier
Given circuit in (a)
Draw the v
o
/v
s
transfer
characteristic (b)
Draw the input and output
waveforms (c)
What is the Peak-Inverse
Voltage (PIV) across the
diode?
PIV = 2Vs Vd
Bridge Rectifier
Draw the input and output waveforms.
What is the Peak-Inverse Voltage (PIV)
across the diodes?
PIV = Vs
Advantages
the PIV of the full wave
Dont need a center-tapped transformer
Only need half of the turns in the
secondary winding
2V
D
-2V
D
Half-Wave Peak Rectifier
Half-Wave Peak Rectifier with load
Full-Wave Peak Rectifier
Diode Rectifiers
Limiter/Clipper
Hard Limiting
Soft Limiting
Examples
Draw the
transfer
characteristic
for the
following
circuits.
Clamper
DC Restorer
Also known as a Clamped Capacitor
assume an ideal diode
The charge on the capacitor, Vc is 6 volts when the diode is conducting,
and Vo is 0.
When Vi jumps to 4 volts, the diode turns off, but there is still 6 volts
across the cap.
Therefore, the output is at 10V.
Essentially, this circuit clamps the voltage on the bottom to 0, and moves
the waveform up.
One use of this circuit is for obtaining average values and detecting duty
cycles based on the average value. This is useful in PWM (pulse-width
modulation)
Clamper with resistor
While the output is above ground, a current must flow in R.
This comes from the cap discharging (as the diode is off).
This falls exponentially with CR.
When the input switches, the output switches the same amount, and
then the capacitor is rapidly charged from the diode.
The resulting output is just a few tenths of a volt negative.
Reverse Clamped
Voltage Doubler
Voltage Doubler
Note that this circuit is
a clamp followed by a
peak rectifier.
The peak-rectifier
provides a voltage of -
2Vp across C2.
The output voltage is
thus twice the input
peak voltage.
This can be extended
to get larger multiples.
(Klingon Pain Stick?)
Diodes and capacitors
are cool.
We should try this in
labOr at least in a
MultiSim where we can
do a transient analysis